The recent history of second language learning research and human learning

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The recent history of second language learning research and human learning

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Title: The recent history of second language learning research and human learning

1
The recent history of second language learning
research and human learning

Part I L1 Acquisition

2
Introduction to Language Acquisition

Interests in L1 competence for many centuries
beginning of analyzing child language
systematically and its psychological process in
the second half of the 20th century
analogies between L1 and L2 acquisition
especially the differences in the case of adult
SL learning in terms of cognitive and affective
contrasts
three theoretical positions of first language
acquisition

3
Theories of L1 acquisition

(1) Behavioristic Approaches focus on the
publicly observable responses
(a) assumptions
(i) Children come into the world with a tabula
rasa, a clean slate bearing no preconceived
notions about the world or about language as to
be shaped by their environment and slowing
conditioned through reinforcement
(ii) Effective language behavior is the
production of correct responses to stimuli.
(iii) If a particular response is reinforced, it
then becomes habitual or conditioned.

4
Theories of L1 acquisition

(b) Verbal Behavior by B.F. Skinner (1957) a
behavioristic
model of linguistic behavior extended
from operant conditioning
Assumption
(i) an operant (an utterance) is emitted
without necessarily
observable stimuli
(ii) that operant is learned by
reinforcement such as from another
person.
(iii)verbal behavior is controlled by its
consequences(rewards or
punishment or no reinforcement)
Criticism Behaviorism cannot explain
creativity of child language
(by Noam Chomsky)

5
Theories of L1 acquisition

(2) The Nativist Approaches
(a) innateness hypotheses
(i) Assertion language acquisition is
innately determined.
Language is a species-specific behavior and
certain modes of perception, categorizing
abilities are biologically determined. (by Eric
Lenneberg, 1967)
Language acquisition device (LAD) in a little
black box
sound discrimination, organization of linguistic
data, only one possibility of a certain kind of
linguistic system within ones head, constant
evaluation in developing linguistic system to
construct the simplest possible system out of the
available linguistic input(by Chomsky, 1965)
(ii) strengths able to account for
the generativity of child langauge

Universal Grammar (Cook 1993, Mitchell Myles
1998)
(i) all human beings are genetically
equipped with abilities that enable
them to acquire language
(ii) to discover what it is that all
children bring to the language
acquisition process from question
formation, negation, word order,
subject deletion and so on.
(c) the development of generative grammar
children construct hypothetical grammar, formal
representations of deep structures which start as
pivot grammars (two-word utterances for two word
classes) and mature.

(d) the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)
Model by Spolsky (Connectionism)
(i) A learners linguistic performance may
be the consequence of
many levels of simultaneous neural
interconnections rather than a
serial process of one rule being applied,
then another and so on.
(ii) refutation of the generative
rule-governed model generative
rules in a linguistic sense are not
connected serially, with one
connection between each pair of neurons in
the brain
(e) Contributions of Nativism
(i) able to explore the unseen, observable,
underlying, abstract
linguistic structures being developed in
the child
(ii) systematic description of the childs
linguistic repertoire as either
rule-governed or operating out of parallel
distributed processing
capacities
(iii) the construction of a number of
potential properties of UG

8
Theories of L1 acquisition

(3) Functional Approaches (language use and
cognitive/affective domains by
constructivism)
(a) Two emphases
Seeing language as one manifestation of the
cognitive and affective ability to deal with the
world, with others and with
the self.
(ii) Nativism as being unable to deal with the
deeper levels of meaning of language constructed
from social interaction but with the forms of
language.

(b) cognition and language development
Lois Bloom (1971) children learn underlying
structures and not superficial word order as
shown in pivot grammar, depending on the social
context
(ii) Jean Piaget (1969) what children know
(cognition development) will determine what they
learn about the code for both speaking and
understanding messages (language development)
(iii) Dan Slobin (1971) in all languages,
semantic learning depends on cognitive
development and that sequences of development are
determined more by semantic complexity, than by
structural complexity-gt schema of cognition on
the functional level and schema of grammar on the
formal level

(c) social interaction and language development
(i) Holzman (1984) a reciprocal model
-gt a reciprocal system operates
between the language
developing infant-child and the
competenc adult language user in
a socializing-teaching-nurturing role
(ii) Berko Gleason (1988) Lock (1991) the
interaction between language acquisition and
learning of social
systems
(iii) Budwig (1995) Kuczaj (1984) the function
of language in discourse (relations between
sentences) in terms of conversational cues

11
Schools of thought in First Language Acquisition
Time Frame Schools of thought Typical themes
Early 1900s, 1940s 1950s Behaviorism Tabula rasa Stimuli linguistic responses Conditioning reinforcement
1960s 1970s Nativism Innate predispositions (LAD UG) systematic, rule-governed acquisition Creative construction Pivot Grammar Parallel distributed processing (PDP)
1980s, 1990s early 2000 functionalism Constructivist Social interaction Cognition and language Function of language Discourse
12
Schools of thought in SLA
Time Frame Schools of thought Typical themes
Early 1900s, 1940s 1950s Structuralism Behaviorism Description Observable performance Scientific method Empiricism Surface structure Conditioning, reinforcement
1960s 1970s Rationalism Cognitive Psychology Generative linguistics Acquisition, innateness Interlanguage systematicity Universal grammar Competence Deep structure
1980s, 1990s early 2000 Constructivism Interactive discourse Sociocultural variables Cooperative group learning Interlanguage variability Interactionist hypotheses
13
Part I L1 Acquisition

2. Issues in L1 acquisition
(1) -Competence ones underlying knowledge of
the system of a language
- Performance actual production (speaking,
writing) or the comprehension (listening,
reading) of linguistic events
Criticism
(i) competence defined by Chomsky consists of
the abilities of an idealized hearer-speaker,
devoid of any performance variables
(ii) dualism are unnecessary and the only option
for linguists is to study language in use (by
Firth and Halliday)
(iii) heterogeneous competence by Tarone that
all of a childs skps and hesitations and
self-corrections are potentially connected to

(2)Comprehension production
(i) comprehension and production can be aspects
of both competence and performance.
(ii) Production competence comprehension
competence?
(iii) Superiority of production over
comprehension?
(3) Nature or nurture?-gt whats predetermined and
whats learned?
(i) Nativism universal innateness in all human
beings (the LAD or UG)
(ii) Environmental factors also matter

(4)Universals
(a) language is universally acquired in the same
manner
(b) the deep structure of language at its deepest
level may be common to all languages.
(c) Universal linguistic categories e.g. word
order, morphological marking tone, agreement
(d) Principles parameters of UG
(i) a childs initial state is supposed to
consist of a set of universal principles (e.g.
structure dependency) which specify some limited
possibilities of variation, so-called parameters
which need to be fixed in one of a few possible
ways.
-gt a childs task of
language learning is manageable
because of certain
naturally occurring constraints
(ii) language cannot vary in endless ways since
parameters determine ways in which language can
vary. E.g head parameter (English- head first
Japanese head last)

(5) Systematicity the systematicity of the
acquisition process in inferring the
phonological, structural, lexical, and semantic
system of language
Variability variability in the
process of learning to
determine what is variable maybe
systematic
(6) Language and thought language interacts
simultaneously with thoughts and feelings
(a) Jerome Bruner (1966) words shape concepts
(b) Vygotsky (1962, 1978) social interaction,
through language, is a prerequisite to cognitive
development (zone of proximal development- the
distance between a childs actual cognitive
capacity and the level of potential development)
(c) Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Language
affects thought-gt each
language imposes on its speaker
a particular world view

(7) Imitation
(a) surface imitation as a strategy in early
language learning as
supported by behaviorism
(b) deep imitation true value in meaningful
semantic level- the deep structure of language
e.g. children often repeat the
correct underlying deep
structure with a
change in the surface rendition
(8) Practice frequency of stimuli (unimportant
to Nativists) importance of words -gt key to
language acquisition
(9) Input adult and peer input to children
seen not as important
as the influence of LAD to explain
how children acquire
language successfully by nativists
but in fact ungrammatical
input is largely ignored and finally
transfer correct forms to
speech

(10) Discourse (by social constructivists)
(a) interaction rather than exposure is
required for successful language acquisition
(b) Sinclair and Culthard (1975) to examine
conversations in
terms of initiations and responses
literal meaning is not
necessarily the same as intended meaning

3. mistakes in drawing direct analogies between
first and second language acquisition(Ausubel)
(1) rote learning practice lacks meaningfulness
necessary for language learning (2) adults
learning a foreign language could benefit from
learning grammar deductively (3) L1 is not
just an interfering factor (4) The written
form of the language could be beneficial (5)
Students could be overwhelmed by language spoken
at its natural speed
19

Part II Second Language Acquisition

1. Age and acquisition
(1) the Critical Period Hypothesis ( a biological
timetable for language acquisition)
-- Assumption a biologically determined
period of life when language can be acquired more
easily and beyond which time language is
increasingly difficult to acquire
(2) Neurological considerations
(a) hemispheric lateralization
(i) as the human brain matures, certain
functions are assigned or
lateralized to one side of
hemisphere.
(ii)The left brain intellectual,
logical and analytic the right brain
emotional and social
(iii) research question when
lateralization takes place and how it
affects language acquisitio
--- Lenneberg (1967) lateralization
begins around age 2 and is
completed around puberty
--- Thomas Scovel (1969)
Learning a L2 as well as L1
should be prior to puberty plasiticity
especially for nativelike
(authentic) pronunciation
(iv) Unresolved time of lateralization
five or puberty

(b) biological timetables support for the
acquisition of an authentic accent on a
neurologically basis, not for that of higher
order processes or communicative fluency
(i) a socio-biological critical period by
Thomas Scovel (1988)- the development of a
socially bonding accent at puberty, enabling
species
---- to form an identify with
their own community as they
anticipate roles of
parenting and leadership
---- to attract mates of
their own kind to maintain their own
species
(ii) different aspects of a L2
are learned optimally at different
ages by Walsh and Diller (1981)-lower-order
processes e.g.
pronunciation depending on
early maturing and less adaptive
macroneural circuits

(c) right-hemispheric participation
(i) Obler (1981) the active role of the right
brain in SLA or strategies of acquisition e.g.
guessing at meanings, use of formulaic utterances
(ii) Genessee (1982) greater involvement of the
right hemisphere in bilinguals particularly for
adult learners
(d) anthropological evidence against Scovels
age-related view
(i) some adult learners
success in language learning
(ii) motivation, affective
variables, social factors and the quality of
input also important in explaining advantage of
the child
the significance of accent
--- for the critical period from
phonology, much muscular control is
required to be fluent in authentic L2
so children easily achieve it
--- against the critical period fluency
over accuracy in pronunciation
how people have accomplished beyond
phonological factors

(3) Cognitive considerations
(a) intellectual development (Piaget)
(i) three stages sensorimotor stage (gt2)
preoperational stage (2-7)
operational stage (7- 16)(concrete operational
stage 7-11 formal operational stage 11-16)
(ii) for the critical period at
puberty, one is capable of abstraction by
Piaget benefits of deductive thinking for adult
learners by Ausubel
(b) affective, rather than cognitive
factors, that facilitate adult learners second
language acquisition
(i) adults are aware of their learning
and can use strategies to help themselves to be
successful
(ii) dominance of the left hemisphere after
puberty contributes to a tendency to
overanalyze and to be too intellectually
centered on SLA

(c) equilibration cognition develops as a
process of moving from
states of doubt and uncertainty to
stages of resolution and
certainty from disequilibrium (which
provides motivation for
language learning language interacts
with cognition to achieve
equilibrium) to equilibrium
(d) rote and meaningful learning learning
must be related to existing
knowledge and experience foreign
language classroom should
not become the locus of excessive rote
activity
(4) Affective considerations empathy,
self-esteem, extroversion, inhibition, anxiety,
attitudes
(a) egocentricity esp for children
(b) language ego by Alexander Guiora (1972)
(i) the identify a person develops in
reference to the language he
or she speaks
(ii) childrens ego is dynamic and
flexible so learning a new
language is not a threat to the ego
adults is protective and
defensive
(iii) successful learning- ones
language ego must be strong
enough to overcome inhibitions

(c) identity affective inhibitions of children
and adults a second identity
(d) attitudes advantage of young children whose
attitudes towards races, cultures, classes of
people havent been developed
(e) peer pressure childrens strong constraints
upon them to conform adults tolerate linguistic
differences more than children
(5) Linguistic considerations
(a) Bilingualism
(i) two kinds of bilinguals
--- coordinate bilinguals two
meaning systems learned from
different language contexts
--- compound bilinguals one meaning
system from which both
language operate
(ii) code-switching of most bilinguals
the act of inserting words,
phrases, or even longer stretches
of one language into the
other, especially when
communicating with another bilingual
(iii) a considerable benefit of early
childhood bilingualism
bilingual children are more facile
at concept formation and
have a greater mental flexibility

(b) interference between L1 and L2 usually not
in young children
(c) interference in adults not necessarily since
adults manifest errors not unlike some of the
errors children make as the result of creative
perception of the second language
(d) order of acquisition
(i) focus on morphemes by Dulay and Burt
--- methodological arguments, lack of
generalizability
(ii) the myth of the younger, the better
by Scovel adults can benefit from literacy,
vocabulary, pragmatics, schematic knowledge, and
even syntax plane

2. Human learning
(1) Classical Behaviorism by Pavlov
respondent conditioning that is concerned with
respondent behavior that is elicited by a
preceding stimulus
(2) Operant Conditioning by Skinner operant
behavior is one in which one operates on the
environment a concern about the consequences
that follow the response
(3) Meaningful Learning Theory by Ausubel
learning takes place in a meaningful process of
relating new events or items to already existing
cognitive concepts
(i) any learning situation can be meaningful
if learners have a meaningful learning set and
the learning task itself is potentially
meaningful to the learners
(ii) a meaningfully learned, subsumed item has
greater potential for retention
(iii) forgetting is a second stage of
subsumption for
--- an economical reason through cognitive
pruning where a
single inclusive concept than a large
number of more
specific items is retained
--- language attribution the
strength and conditions of initial
learning motivation use of a
L2

(iv) strengths of subsumption theory the
disadvantage of rote
memory in language learning
systematic forgetting shift of the goal to
communicative competence
(4) Humanistic Psychology by Rogers
constructivism by highlighting the social and
interactive nature of learning in the affective
domain
(i) the whole person as a physical,
cognitive, and emotional being
(ii) learning how to learn
(iii) teachers as facilitators of learning
through the establishment of
interpersonal relationships with
learners and genuine trust and
empathy
(iv) a climate of nondefensive learning
(v) empowerment of students, not banking

29
Behavioristic Cognitive Constructivist
classical (Pavlov) respondent conditioning elicited response S-gtR operant (Skinner) governed by consequences emitted response R-gt S (reward) No punishment Programmed instruction (Ausubel) meaningfulpowerful roteweak subsumption of new items under a more inclusive conceptual system association and retention systematic forgetting cognitive pruning (Rogers) fully functioning person learn how to learn community of learners empowerment
30

3.Transfer, interference, and overgeneralization
(6) A more correct explication The interaction
of previously learned
material with a present learning event
(7) Transfer positive transfer and negative
transfer (interference,
usually L1-gt L2, overgeneralization L1-gt
L1 or L2 -gt L2)
(8) All generalizing involves transfer and all
transfer involves
generalizing.
4.Inductive and deductive reasoning
(1) Inductive reasoning one stores a number of
specific instances and induces a general rule or
conclusion that governs the specific instances
(e.g. classroom learning)
(2) Deductive reasoning a movement from a
generalization to specific instances
(3) Gestalt learning perception of the whole
before the parts

5. Schema Theory (By Bartlett, 1932 )
(1) To explain how the language that we have
about the world is organized into interrelated
patterns based on our previous knowledge and
experience. These schemata also allow us to
predict what may happen in future context.
(2) Efficient readers can relate texts to
their background knowledge of the world.
(3) The process of interpretation is guided by
the principle that every input is mapped against
one existing schema and that all aspects of that
schema must be compatible with the input
information. This principle results in two modes
of information processing, called bottom-up and
top-town.
(4) Both processing should be occurring at all
levels simultaneously.
(5)bottom-up processing
(i) It is evoked by the incoming data, the
features of the data enter the system through the
best fitting, bottom-level schemata. Schemata are
hierarchically organized, from most general at
the top to most specific at the bottom. When
these bottom-level schemata converge into higher
level, more general schemata, these too become
activated. Bottom-up processing is thus
data-driven.

32
(ii) The data that are needed to
instantiate or fill out make schemata become
available through bottom-up processing.
(iii) This processing ensures that listeners or
readers will be sensitive to
information that is novel or that doesnt fit
their ongoing hypotheses about the
content or structure of the text.
(6) top-down processing (i) It occurs as the
system makes general predictions based on higher
level, general schemata and then searches the
input for information to fit into these
partially satisfies, higher order schemata. It
is conceptually driven. (ii) It facilitates
the datas assimilation if they are anticipated
by or consistent with the listeners or readers
conceptual expectations. (iii) It helps
learners resolve ambiguities or select between
alternative possible interpretations of the
incoming data.
33

6. Styles and strategies
Learning styles
field independence/field dependence styles

Definition Personal traits Classroom learning Age difference
field independence the ability to perceive a particular, relevant item or factor in a field of distracting items a more analytical, more independent, competitive, and self-confident person analysis, attention to details, mastering of drills in classroom learning, better in deductive lessons Adults Use more monitoring or learning strategies for language acquisition(conscious attention to forms)
field dependence The tendency to be dependent on the total field so that the parts embedded within the field are not easily perceived. More socialized, empathic, and perceptive of the feelings and thoughts of others, Natural, face to face communication, the kind of communication rare in the average language classroom Children use strategies of acquisition (subconscious attention to functions)
34

significance
1. FI and FD are not in complementary
distribution within an individual
2. Both styles are important
3. to assume a persons general inclinations
in a
given context with an appropriate style

(b) left- and right-brain functioning

Left-brain dominance Right-brain dominance
Remember names Remember faces
Deductive-gt analytical Inductive-gtholistic
Logical-gt logical problem solving Visual, auditory, emotional-gt intuitive problem solving
Linear processing Elusive, uncertain information
FI-gtintellectual, planned and structured FD-gt intuitive, fluid, spontaneous
Prefers talking and writing-gt less body language Prefers drawing and manipulating objects -gt more body language
Make objective judgments -gtmultiple-choice tests Make subjective judgments-gt open-ended questions
36

(c) ambiguity tolerance to predict academic
success
definition how much one tolerates ideas and
propositions opposing to ones belief
system
(ii) with ambiguity tolerance-gt free to entertain
innovative and creative possibilities and not be
disturbed by uncertainty
(iii) too much ambiguity tolerance-gt prevent
meaningful subsumption of ideas due to
wishy-washy tendency
(iv) no ambiguity tolerance-gtrigid, dogmatic mind

(d) reflectivity and impulsivity
reflectivity impulsivity
Systematic styles A slower, more calculated decision maker Accurate reader Inductive reasoning Intuitive styles A quick, hunch-based decision maker Fast reader Willing to guess

More patience for a reflective learner,
fewer judgments on mistakes made by an impulsive
learner.

37
(e) visual and auditory styles
Visual auditory
Prefer reading, studying charts, drawing, and other graphic information e.g. Korean students Prefer listening to lectures and audiotapes
Successful learners utilize both visual and
auditory input
(2) Strategies (refer to Oxfords strategy
classification system, 1990) (a) Learning
strategies to take in messages (input) from
others (i) good language
learners by Rubin and Stern (1975) in terms of
personal characteristics, styles, and strategies
38
(ii) strategies by Michael OMalley (1983)
Metacognitive Cognitive Socioaffective
An executive function involving planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of ones production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity In specific learning tasks for more direct manipulation of the learning material itself e.g. repetition, translation, note taking Social-mediating activity and interacting with others e.g. cooperation, question for clarification
39

(iii) indirect learning strategies
metacognitive, affective and social direct
learning strategies- memory, cognitive and
compensation.
usefulness of adopting learning strategies
in language
learning
-gt strategies-based instruction (SBI)
(about how to
learn) and autonomous self-help
training
1. be aware of ones style, preferences
and the
strategies
2. practice successful strategies
3. practice compensatory strategies
4. strategy instruction in the textbook

(b) Communication strategies how one expresses
meanings deliver messages to others especially
when communication is deterred from reaching its
goal
avoidance strategies message abandonment, topic
avoidance, lexical, syntactic, and phonological
avoidance
(ii) compensatory strategies (part of strategic
competence)circumlocution , approximation, use of
all-purpose words, word coinage, prefabricated
patterns, nonlinguistic signals, literal
translation, foreignizing, code-switching appeal
for help, stalling/time-gaining strategies

7. Personality factors
(1) the affective domain
(a) self-esteem a personal judgment of
worthiness thats
expressed in the attitudes that
individuals hold towards
themselves related to ones
willingness to communicate in a
foreign languag
(i) general or global self-esteem
- a median level of overall
self-appraisal
-stable in a mature adult so
resistant to change over time and across
situations
(ii) situational or specific
self-esteem
- ones self-appraisals in
particular life situations e.g. home,
work, athletic ability, and
personality traits
(iii) task self-esteem
- particular tasks within
specific situation e.g. one subject
matter area in the
educational domain

(b) Inhibition sets of defenses to protect the
ego
(i) language ego by Guiora (1972) and Ehrman
(1996) occurs when identity conflict as language
learners take on a new identity with their newly
acquired competence
(ii) higher self-esteem adaptive language ego-gt
lower inhibition
(c) risk-taking ability to make intelligent
guesses impulsivity
(i) Being willing to take risks doesnt
necessarily contributes to success since not
necessarily accurate guesses
(ii) Willing and accurate guesses, high
motivation and self-esteem are also factors of
learner success
(iii) Lack of willingness to
take risks-gt fossilization

43
(d) Anxiety (i) trait anxiety (permanent
predisposition to be anxious)/ state anxiety
(situationally anxious)-gt language anxiety
(ii) debilitative(harmful anxiety)/
facilitative anxiety (helpful anxiety e.g.
concern over a task to be accomplished-gt
competitiveness) (iii) three components
of language anxiety 1. communication
apprehension 2. fear of negative social
evaluation 3. test anxiety
44

(e) Empathy the process of putting oneself into
some elses shoes usually through language
(i) transactional variables to
SLA imitation, modeling,
identification, empathy,
extroversion, aggression,
styles of communication
(ii) empathy is more detachment
from others
sympathy is an agreement
between individuals.
(iii) two aspects to the
development and exercising of
empathy
1. an awareness and knowledge
of ones feelings
2. identification with
another person (to know
oneself first)

(f) Extroversion the extent to which a person
has a deep-seated need to receive ego
enhancement, self-esteem, and a sense of
wholeness from others
(i) introversion the extent to which a person
derives a sense of wholeness and fulfillment
apart from a reflection of this self from other
people
(ii) introverted? passive extroverted?bright and
empathetic
(iii) extroversion as a factor in
developing oral
communicative competence

(2) motivation
(a) three views of motivation

Behavioristic Cognitive Constructivist
Anticipation of reward Desire to receive positive reinforcement External, individual forces in control Driven by basic human needs (exploration, manipulation,etc) Degree of effort expended Internal, individual forces in control Social context Community Social status Security of group Internal, interactive forces in control
47

(b) instrumental/integrative orientations (Robert
Gardner MacIntyre, 1991) converted from
instrumental and integrative motivations
(i) Instrumental orientation (usually from
extrinsic motivation) acquiring a language as a
means for attaining instrumental goals academic
or career-related
(ii) Integrative orientations (from intrinsic
motivation) (weaker than assimilative orientation
by Graham, 1984) learners wish to integrate
themselves into the culture of the second
language group socially or culturally oriented
(iii) Implications no single means of learning a
L2 the two orientations are not necessarily
mutually exclusive

48
(c) intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
intrinsic motivation extrinsic motivation
to bring out feelings of competence and self-determination strongly favored for long-term retention or self-realization maybe turn out to be integrative anticipation of a reward from outside for short-term retention maybe instrumental
49

8. Sociocultural factors
(1) stereotypes/ overgeneralizations
(a) Reality is perceived through ones
cultural pattern?
- too oversimplified
(b) Our cultural milieu shapes our world
view (how do stereotypes
form)?
(c) Stereotype-thinking towards a
culture and people in it can be
accurate in depicting the typical
member of a culture but not
for particular individuals so
cultural differences need to be
understood.
(2) Attitudes implied by stereotyping toward
the culture or language developed in early
childhood and be the result of parents and
peers attitudes
(a) group-specific attitude-gt an
integrative orientation
(b) positive attitudes-gt enhance
proficiency
(c) negative attitudes-gt positive by
direct exposure to reality

(3) second culture acquisition
(a) culture learning a process of perceiving,
interpreting, feeling, and being in the world to
create shared meaning between cultural
representatives
(b) acculturation the process learners adapt to
the target language culture and acquire the L2
usually during the recovery stage
the tourist stage the
empty stage (culture shock)
the recovery stage (culture stress)
the acceptance stage (adaptation))
(c) culture shock
1. phenomena ranging from mild irritability
to deep
psychological panic and crisis
2. a profound cross-cultural
learning experience which takes place when one
examines the degree to which ones influenced by
his own culture and understands the culturally
derived values, attitudes, and outlooks of
other people

(4) social distance
(a) definition the cognitive and affective
proximity of two cultures that come into contact
within an individual which is difficult to
measure
(b) parameters of social distance by John
Schumann (1976)
dominance TL/L2 politically, culturally,
technically, economically dominant, non-dominant
or subordinate
(ii) integration L2 is assimilation,
acculturation or preservation
(iii) cohesiveness cohesive, size of L2
(iv) congruence congruent value and belief
systems in TL/L2
(v) permanence L2s intended length of residence
in the TL area

(c) a good language learning situation
the L2 group is non-dominant in relation to the
TL group
(ii) both groups desire assimilation for the L2
group
(iii) low enclosure is the goal of both groups
(iv) the two cultures are congruent
(v) the L2 group is small and non-cohesive
(vi) both groups have positive attitudes towards
each other
(vii) the L2 group intends to remain in the
target language area for a long time
(d) measurement of perceived social distance (W.
Acton, 1979) by quantifying the different
attitudes towards various concepts
(e) implication mastery of fluency
in L2 occurs at the beginning of the recovery
stage of acculturation

(f) the optimal distance model by Brown (1980)
for adults
especially a culturally based
critical-period hypothesis
1. an adult who fails to master a L2 might
have failed to
synchronize linguistic and cultural
development
2. In Stage 3 to Stage 4, those
who have achieved nonlinguistic
means of coping in a
foreign culture-gt fossilization
(g) culture in the classroom four
conceptual categories to study
the cultural norms
(i) individualism (loosely
integrated)/collectivism (tightly
integrated)
(ii) power distance- the extent
to which the less power persons
accept inequality in power
and consider it normal
(iii) uncertainty avoidance-
strong uncertainty avoidance-gt active,
aggressive, emotional,
compulsive, security-seeking and
intolerant
(iv) masculinity- masculine
cultures stress material success and

(5) language policy and politics
(a) world Englishes
(b) ESL/ EFL
(c) Linguistic imperialism and language rights
(d) Language policy and the English
only debate
(6) Language, thought, and culture the
Sapir-Whorf
Hypothesis
(a) euphemisms/verbal labels can shape the way
one stores
events for later recall
(b) the way a sentence is structured will affect
nuances of meaning
e.g. Did you see the broken
headlight?- There is one.
Did you see a broken
headlight?
(c) conversational discourse signals, a factor of
culture- casual/formal
(d) lexical items intersection of culture and
cognition e.g. color categorization
(e) question Does language reflect
a cultural world view or does
language actually shape the
world view?

(f) Alternative labels of the Spair-Whorf
Hypothesis
The Whorfian Hypothesis,
linguistic relativity or
linguistic determinism
(g) Criticism
-Its possible to talk about
anything in any language
but some concepts are easy to
express
-Through both languages and
cultures, some
universals are found
- A L2 learner can make
positive use of prior
experiences to facilitate the
process of learning

10. Cross-linguistic influence and learner
language
(1) the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (by
applied linguists)
(a) influenced by behaviorism/structuralism in
the 1950s
(b) claim the principal barrier to SLA is the
interference of the
L1 system with the L2 system so the
differences of L1 and
L2 should be overcome
(c) Linguistics across cultures by Robert Lado
(1957) the patterns that will cause difficulty
in learning can be predicted and described by
comparing systematically the target language and
the L1 Similar in L1 and L2-gt simple different
-gt difficult
(d) Hierarchy of difficulty in terms of
phonology, syntax, etc for prediction by
Stockwell, Bowen Martin 1965

(i) Shortcomings of CAH
CAH is inadequate to predict the interference
problems of a learner
(ii) Great difference doesnt necessarily cause
great difficulty-gt intralingual/interlingual
errors
(iii) It is difficult to determine exactly which
category a particular contrast fit into

(2) Markedness and UG to better explain
learning difficulty than CAH (a)
Markedness theory by Fred Eckman (1977)
(i) Marked items in a language will be more
difficult to acquire than unmarked
(ii) Degrees of markedness will correspond to
degrees of difficulty (iii) Marked
structures are acquired later than unmarked
ones. (b) UG rules shared by all
languages (i) to discover innate
linguistic principles that govern what is
possible in human languages (ii)
to understand and describe contrasts of L1 and L2
and difficulties of learners
58

(3) Learner Language (Interlanguage by Selinker,
1972)
(l) IL a system that has a structurally
intermediate status between L1 and L2 It is
neither L1 nor L2
(m) Approximative system byNemser (1971)
(n) Idiosyncratic dialect by Corder (1971)
(o) Study learner language from production
data which
are observable and reflective of a
learners
underlying competence
(p) To analyze Interlanguage, errors of
learners have to be studied because correct
production yields little
information about competence

(4) Error Analysis (performance/ interlanguage
analysis)
--- errors provide the evidence of how
language is learned, and
what procedures or strategies the
learner is employing in the
discovery of language
--- examination of errors from all possible
sources, not just from L1
interference (like CA) e.g.
intralingual, sociolinguisitc,
psycholinguistic, cognitive or affective
sources

(q) mistakes and errors
mistakes errors
a performance error either a random guess or a slip due to a failure to utilize a known system correctly a noticeable deviation reflects the lack of the linguistic competence
Can be self-corrected by native speakers when attention is called Cannot be self-corrected
60

(r) identifying and describing errors
(i) norms errors
(ii) how to distinguish errors and mistakes?
(iii) Describing errors by
--- grammatical categories
--- general error type omission (e.g I went to
movie.), misinformation, misordering (e.g. I to
the store went), addition (e.g. Does can he
sing?), substitution (e.g. I lost my road.)
--- overt (ungrammatical at the sentence
level)/covert errors (grammatically well-formed
but not discourse interpretable within the
context of communication)
--- global (hinder communication)/local (at
verbatim level)
---domain/extent by Lennon, 1991 e.g. a scissors
(domain-phrase, extent- an indefinite article)

(iv) explaining errors
--- systematic, universal, predictable? By
repeated systematic observation of learner speech
--- Sources
1. interlingual transfer especially in the
beginning stages of
SLA e.g He goed.
2. intralingual transfer overgeneralization
when
learners have begun to acquire parts of
the new system
3. context of learning classroom or social
situation
faulty concepts from teachers/induced
errors/bookish
4. communicative strategies circumlocution,
word
coinage, false cognates (by Tarone,
1981), or
prefabricated patterns

(s) criticism
(i) positive reinforcement of clear and free
communication is also important (fluency).
(ii) Overemphasis on production data
comprehension is also important.
(iii) It fails to explain avoidance
(iv) It too closely focuses on specific language
rather than universal aspects of language

(5 ) Stages of learner language development
all are not able to measure overall competence
because one can be in different stages
of different tenses (i) Random
(presystematic) to guess or experiment e.g. John
can to sing (ii) Emergent one begins to
discern a system but then regresses to some
previous stage unable to correct avoidance of
structures and topics (iii) Systematic more
consistent and able to correct errors when
pointed out (iv) Stabilization
(post-systematic) few errors, able to
self-correct
63

(6) Variability due to context as the source of
variation
(a) capability continuum paradigm by Elaine
Tarone (1988)
the extent to which both linguistic and
situational context may help to describe
variation
(b) variable competence model by Rod Ellis (1994)
(c) criticism variable -gt systematic

(7) Fossilization (a) definition
the relatively permanent incorporation of
incorrect
linguistic forms into a persons L2 competence
(b) How do items become fossilized?
(i) affective feedback
(ii) cognitive feedback (c) Why
does fossilization occur?
(i) the presence or absence of internal
motivating factors (ii)
seeking interaction with other people
(iii) consciously focusing on forms
(iv) ones strategic investment
in the learning process
64

(8) Form-focused instruction
(a) Does form-focused instruction work?
Yes, but it depends on the
target structure being taught e.g plurals
(i) item learning (effective in
instruction)/system learning
(ii) the Teachability Hypothesis by Penemann
Instruction can only promote language acquisition
if the interlanguage is close to the point when
the structure to be taught is acquired in the
natural setting instruction only helps to speed
up learners learning process
(iii) some structures seem to be permanently
affected by instruction because
1. system learning can last longer
2. it depends on the nature of the instruction
3. when learners use the structure frequently
(iv) what structures to teach?
Marked functions first
to trigger the unmarked ones

(b) What kind of form-focused instruction works
best?
(i) input-based instruction may be more effective
than production-based instruction
(ii) consciousness-raising by providing learners
positive or negative evidence but positive input
may help learners start using some difficult
forms but may not be sufficient to destabilize IL
and prevent fossilization
(c) individual differences are likely to
influence the effects of instruction.

(9) Error treatment (a) when to treat
errors the importance of errors,
chance of eliciting correct
performance (b) what to correct
global errors to be treated only but some
utterances are not clearly global or
local (c) How to correct
One useful taxonomy by Bailey, 1985 (d)
Learners system is a variable, dynamic, and
approximate system, but
shouldnt be treated as an imperfect system.
66
11. Communicative competence

(1) Definition
(a) Dell Hymes highlights the difference
between linguistic competence and communicative
competence
(b) Savignon Communicative competence is
relative and depends on the cooperation of all
the participants involved, a dynamic and
interpersonal construct that can be examined by
means of the over performance of two or more
individuals.
(c) Cummins
(i) cognitive/academic language proficiency
(context-reduced-gt school-oriented)
(ii) basic interpersonal communicative skills-
the capacity all children acquire to be able to
function in daily communication
(context-embedded-gt face to face communication)