Learning and motivation PSYC 3700 Dr. Bill Potter

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Learning and motivationPSYC 3700Dr. Bill Potter

• psyc.csustan.edu/potter

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1-1 Why is learning such an important topic?

• Our Environment is constantly changing
• (New Roads, new people, new Items in the fridge,
  etc)
• We must be able to adapt to those changes or.
• Evolution is too slow must adapt in our
  lifetime..
• Thus, the need for learning (allows us to adapt
  rapidly)

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1-2. Be able to explain Darwins theory of
evolution. This means you should be able to
describe how it works, its effects on organisms,
and why it is important to the study of learning.
Be able to use such terms as natural selection,
genetic and mutations and to provide example
of evolution in action. (1,4-5,5)

• Origin of Species, 1859, Darwin evolution
  theory for how species have adapted to the
  environment
• A. Many Offspring
• B. Variation among offspring (longer legs,
  stronger, different coloring, beak shape, etc)
• C. Some variations provide advantage for
  offspring (mutations variations)
• D. Those that live to reproduce may pass trait to
  offspring (genetics)
• E. Many generations traits become prevalent in
  the population (others w/o trait may not have
  reproduced)
• Note the ability to learn evolved!

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Evolution continued (1-2)

• Environment selects traits of individuals
  natural selection
• Natural Selection variation evolution
• Environment Everything, including other
  organisms
• No purpose necessary just happens from
  interaction of environment and organism.
• Examples of Evolution?

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Evolution - examples

• Japanese crabs with samurai faces on shell
  after great battle
• Moth in British Isles industrialization
• Bacteria dont take all your antibiotics!

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1-3. Know (that is, list, describe and be able to
provide examples) the two broad categories of
learning

• Respondent Conditioning (pavlovian)
• Important for emotions, reflexes, etc.
• often called reflexive can be learned or
  unlearned
• Operant conditioning
• Likely the bulk of human learning
• May interact with respondent conditioning (e.g.
  speak more loudly when angry, later,
  conditioned reinforcers)

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• What happens to the duck who flies upside down?

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• What happens to the duck who flies upside down?
• He Quacks up!

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1-4. Know what is considered in a behavioral
approach
A-B reflex is typical respondent/pavlovian
learning B-C or A-B-C is typical operant learning
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1-5. Be able to clearly define a response (an
instance of behavior). Be able to provide
examples and recognize examples and non-examples.
Also be sure to know the difference between a
covert and overt response. (p 9)

• Behavior any action of an organisms effectors
  muscles and glands
• Also add any action of an organisms cells
  (especially neurons!)
• (but read Malott, - the dead-man test)
• A response is an instance of behavior
• Overt behavior that is observable/measurable by
  several different observers simultaneously
• Covert behavior that is only observable by only
  1 person (or unobservable without the aid of
  instruments)
• Can covert behaviors be made overt?

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1-6. Be able to define Stimulus. Be able to
provide examples and non-examples.

• Stimulus any event that can impact our senses
  (that is, that we can detect)
• Vision, touch, smell, taste, hearing,
  temperature, kinesthesia, vestibular, pain
• More complex stimuli (requires a learning
  history) larger than (relative to something else)
  also, rounder, more blue, etc. faster (relative
  and time based)
• Overt Stimulus a stimulus that 2 or people can
  witness simultaneously
• Covert stimulus observable only to 1 person
  (e.g. stomach ache, unhappiness)

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1-7. Be able to define learning. I will provide
examples you should be able to provide the
definition on a test, as well as examples. In
addition, you should be able to recognize
non-examples

• Learning a relatively permanent change in
  behavior due to experience
• Involves acquiring new behaviors (learn to ride
  bike, learn names of state capitals)
• or losing behaviors (Stop smoking, stop hitting
  your brother)
• Examples (are these learned behaviors?)
• Drinking from a glass with a straw
• Opening a door
• Solving 3x 12 24
• Blinking when a puff of air hits your eye
• Stopping in place when someone yells loudly at
  you
• Running when a gun is sounded for the start of a
  race

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• Where do animals go when they lose their tails?

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• Where do animals go when they lose their tails?
• To a retail store!

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1-8. Know the difference between a behavioral and
cognitive approach and why I call the behavioral
approach optimistic but not romantic. Also, what
does non inferential mean?

• Behavioral Relies on observable data (and
  physiology) includes
• Stimuli
• Responses
• Observable history
• Optimistic
• Most human behaviors are learned, thus we can
• Become smarter, better athletes, more friendly, a
  better problem solver.
• Not romantic
• Keeps it simple non-inferential, uses basic,
  known principles to account for human behavior
• Cognitive relies on observable data (and
  physiology), but adds mental processes
  (non-observable inferences)
• Cognitive structures imply that many of human
  capabilities are genetic (thus not optimistic)
• Computer is often the analogy for human learning

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Cognitive example on memory A very simple model
might contain 3 different stores    The Sensory
Information Store (SIS)    The Short-Term Store
(STS)    The Long-Term Store (LTS) ... and 3
processes  Encoding (putting information into a
store)  Maintenance (keeping it "alive")
 Retrieval (finding encoded information) From
http//olias.arc.nasa.gov/cognition/tutorials/Mode
lOf/Knowmore1.html
           
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1-9. Be familiar with the cases that Malott and
Trojan present. I may ask you questions on the
test regarding what they were trying to
accomplish, and what techniques they used.

• Be sure to read them as I will only mention them
  incidentally!

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1-10. Be able to explain what a task analysis is,
and be able to do one.

• Task Analysis break a sequence of behavior into
  its component parts
• E.g. throwing a basketball
• Folding laundry
• Ironing
• Changing a tire

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1-10. Be able to recognize and provide examples
of reinforcer as your author does on page 5.
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1-11. Define and provide examples and recognize
example and nonexamples of reinforcer

• Reinforcer any stimulus, event, or condition
  that immediately follows a response and increases
  the frequency of that response.
• Reinforcer should follow response within a few
  seconds longer and other behaviors may occur.
• Reinforcer is defined by its effect on behavior!
• Reinforcer can not be defined in advance 9but can
  have some good guesses!)

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1-11. Examples, or not, of reinforcers

• 1. Your friend says hi, you say buzz off!.

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1-11. Examples, or not, of reinforcers

• 2. Your child cries, and you pick him up. In the
  future he cries more often.

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1-11. Examples, or not, of reinforcers

• 3. A student in school uses cuss words and the
  teacher yells at him. The cuss word-usage
  increases.

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1-11. Examples, or not, of reinforcers

• 4. A fly is buzzing around your head and you swat
  at the fly, squishing it. In the future when a
  fly is nearby you swat at it.

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1-12. Be able to define Behavior Analysis p 10

• Behavior analysis the analysis of behavior the
  study of the operation of the principles of
  behavior with both human beings and other
  animals.
• Tends to adhere to natural science approach (less
  inferential)

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1-13. Define Repertoire

• a set of skills.
• Often used to indicate all the behaviors a person
  has
• E.g. calculus is in his repertoire

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1-14. Basic Intermediate Enrichment parts

• While I may not cover these in class, they are
  excellent candidates for extra credit questions
  on the exam! (and for all exams in the future!)

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2-1. What is a baseline and how did Juke obtain
it on his grandfather? (p 17)

• Baseline measuring behavior in the absence of an
  intervention
• - After clearly defining what the behavior of
  interest was Juke recorded how often it
  occurred with no attempt to change the
  behavior.

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• What gets wetter and wetter the more it dries?

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2-3. Know what a reinforcement contingency is
(18-20)

• Contingent dependency or causal relationship
• Dict.com likely but not certain to happen
• Contingency if X occurs Y should occur
• (If I tell you the you will get an A in this
  class, you are likely to smile)
• Reinforcement contingency
• The immediate
• Response-contingent
• Presentation of a reinforcer
• Resulting in an increased frequency (or
  maintenance of that response

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2-4. Be able to provide examples of reinforcement
contingency

• Put a coin in a gumball machine, turn and get
  gumball
• Twist door handle, door opens
• Friend says hi to you, you say hi back

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2-5. Know the difference between programmed and
unprogrammed consequences (lecture only)

• A. Programmed arranged by a person e.g. the
  gumball machine, or saying hi to someone when
  they say hi to you, flip on light switch and
  light floods room
• B. Unprogrammed usually a naturally occurring
  consequence, e.g. look down and see 20
  (accidental), change channels and stumble on a
  great movie.
• Automatic consequence consequence is
  inseparable from the pain when hitting your leg
  on a table, hit hand on desk and hear sound (as
  well as feel the pain!). Wave hands in front of
  face visual stimulation may be SR

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2-6. What does non contingent reinforcement
mean?(21)

• Delivery of SR not dependent on any particular
  response.
• i.e. every 40 seconds give food to a dog.
• Non contingent love love the organism, dislike
  the behavior.

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2-7. Know what a Behavioral Contingency is (20)

• The occasion for a response
• The response and
• The consequence
• Added from reinforcement contingency
• The occasion for a response
• In general SD (discriminative stimulus) or
• MO (motivative operation)

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2-8. Know what a Skinner box is (27))
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Skinner Box
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2-9. Know what circular reasoning is (28)

• This fallacy occurs when you state your claim and
  then, usually after rewording it, you state it
  again as your reason. This fallacy is also
  commonly called "Begging the Question" gpb
• From http//home.olemiss.edu/gbrown/reserve/fall
  acies_and_causes.htm

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Circular reasoning - examples

• Why does a rat drink water?
• Because he wants the water
• How do you know he wants the water?
• Because he drinks it.
• How do you know Bob is intelligent
• Because he scores well on tests.
• Why does he score well on tests?
• Because he is intelligent

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3-1. Know what negative reinforcement is (37)

• Negative reinforcement since it is reinforcement,
  it involves an increase in behavior (as with SR
  you must see this!)
• The antecedent is an aversive condition
• The behavior terminates or lessens that aversive
  condition
• The consequence is the escape or lessening of the
  aversive condition a good thing!

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3-2. Be able to provide and recognize good and
bad examples of negative reinforcement

• You are trying to read at Starbucks and a person
  is talking loudly
• You plug your ears (or ear!)
• The loud talking is reduced or removed
• You do this more often in the future when loud
  noises are present.

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Examples of Negative SR

• Your television set is emitting a high pitched
  whine. You whack the side of it and it stops.
• It is raining you put your book over your head
  and it stops the rain. In the future when it is
  raining you put your book over your head.
• Your child is whining for a cookie. You give him
  a cookie and he stops whining. When he whines in
  the next day, you give me a cookie. (notice the
  two types of SR that interlock)

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Know what an escape contingency is (38)

• The immediate
• Response-contingent
• Removal of
• An aversive condition
• Resulting in an increased frequency of that
  response.

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3-3. You should be able to compare and contrast
positive SR with Negative SR (39)

• I would be happy to provide examples!! We have
  covered both now.
• Do ?

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3.4. Know the terms/relationships supplied below.

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3.4. Know the terms/relationships supplied below.

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3.5. You should be familiar with the fact that
you do not have to be aware of reinforcement (or
punishment) in order for it to effect behavior.
(p. 42)

• Reinforcement and punishment will work without
  being conscious of it.
• Examples mannerisms!

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3.6. Know what differential reinforcement of
alternative behavior is (p 45)

• differential reinforcement of Alternative
  Behavior
• The replacement of an inappropriate response
• With a specific appropriate response
• That produces the same reinforcing outcome

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3-7. Be able to diagram differential
reinforcement of alternative behavior. Be able to
provide examples and recognize examples of this!
(47)
49
3-8. Be able to describe what a functional
assessment is (48-49)

• Functional assessment
• An attempt to discover the contingency that
  maintains a response
• What maintains the following?
• A child tantrums in class
• A boy hits his head against the wall

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3-9. Know the three general types of functional
assessment strategies (48)

• 1. Interview Question person with behavior
  issue talk to those in direct contact with that
  person
• 2. Observe observe the person especially when
  the behavior of interest occurs (or does not
  occur) usually take frequency and other data.
• 3. Intervene (do a functional analysis).
  Manipulate antecedents and consequences and
  observe the effect on behavior.

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3-10. Be able to give examples and recognize
examples of the three strategies of FA (49)

• Do a functional assessment of
• Child that pees in class
• Child that hits others
• An adult that smokes

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3-11. Know what the sick social cycle is. We
have covered this as interlocking contingencies,
this one is specific to one party being
positively reinforced, and the other negatively
reinforced (51)

• The sick social cycle (victims escape model)
• In escaping
• The perpetrator's aversive behavior
• The victim unintentionally reinforces
• That aversive behavior
• Examples?

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3-12. You should be familiar with other types of
interlocking contingencies that are not the sick
social cycle

• Example on test
• Your friend talks about his cool psyc 3700 class
  quite often. One time when he is talking about
  it, you start drooling. This stops your friend
  from talking about it. You drool more often in
  the future.

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3-13. Be able to diagram the sick social cycle
(52-53). Also be aware that there are many
interlocking contingencies that are not sick.
Note that there are many cases in which the
interlocking contingency is not sick but rather
very healthy. For example, child cries that is
in pain or discomfort, parent attends to them, or
someone says something that hurts our feelings
and we say that hurt my feelings soliciting a
removal of both aversive conditions
Hurt feelings
Hey!
Insult removed
Hey!
Sorry
Aversive removed!
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3-14. Know what Parsimony is and why it is
important (55)

• Parsimony (from dictionary.com)
• Adoption of the simplest assumption in the
  formulation of a theory or in the interpretation
  of data, especially in accordance with the rule
  of Ockham's razor.
• Ockham's razor A rule in science and philosophy
  stating that entities should not be multiplied
  needlessly. This rule is interpreted to mean that
  the simplest of two or more competing theories is
  preferable and that an explanation for unknown
  phenomena should first be attempted in terms of
  what is already known. Also called law of
  parsimony.

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3-14. Know what Parsimony is and why it is
important (55)

• Malott Trojan
• The use of no unnecessary concepts, principles or
  assumptions
• Importance? Helps prevent mistakes we tend to
  insert things we think are relevant, but probably
  are not (scientific explanations were riddled
  with these prior to adopting the principle of
  parsimony) (.e. entelechy)

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3-15. Know what the toothpaste theory of abnormal
behavior is (Malott is not in favor of such a
theory!) (57)

• Abnormal behavior flows out of sick people
• Like toothpaste squeezed from a tube
• The abnormal behavior results from inner pressure
• We can look for causes in the current
  environment, and in a learning history (if it is
  accessible!)

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4-1. Know the definition of punishment
(contingency) (60)

• The immediate
• Response-contingent
• Presentation of
• An aversive condition
• Resulting in a decreased frequency of that
  response.

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4-2. Be able to provide and recognize examples of
punishment you should be able to distinguish
them from reinforcement and negative
reinforcement.

• Velma Gerri grinding teeth bruxism each
  time she did it, ice cube momentarily on face
  teeth grinding stopped.
• Sandra 6 months old regurgitating food via
  tongue moments. When tongue movements started,
  lemon juice in mouth tongue movements and
  regurgitation stopped.

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4-3. Know that punishment is applied, a
reinforcement contingency is also in effect (67
73)

• If a response is occurring then a reinforcer is
  maintaining that response
• If you apply a punisher, then you have a punisher
  and reinforcer present at the same time

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4-3. Know that punishment is applied, a
reinforcement contingency is also in effect (67
73)
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4-4. Know what overcorrection is, and that it is
simply another form of punishment. Be familiar
with other types of punishment (e.g. exercise,
restitutional overcorrection) ( 69)

• Overcorrection person who has inappropriate
  behavior is required to fix what their behavior
  disrupted, and more than they caused.
• For example turn over tables, or throw things,
  clean up entire room.

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4-5. Know what restitutional overcorrection is,
and the potential additional value it adds (69)

• Restitutional overcorrection the person is
  required to store the environment back to the
  state it was prior to their destructive behavior,
  and then some that is to a state better than it
  was before the destructive behavior took place
• second advantage is that it could contain
  educational components (e.g. learn how to
  organize the CDs that were thrown on the floor,
  etc. )

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4-6. Know the point about a gradually increasing
punishment contingency overlaid on a
reinforcement contingency. (75)

• Azrin taught a pigeon to peck a lighted disk for
  food. Then, he added a small shock to the pigeon
  each time the pigeon pecked the shock was not
  enough to stop (punish the response). He
  gradually increased the shock, until the shock
  was knocking the pigeon off its feet but it
  still pecked!
• Lesson To be effective punishment needs to be
  immediate and an intensity that stops the
  response however it is the last resort!

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4-7. Know Malotts point about the right to
effective treatment (76)

• Especially when SIB is involved, punishment may
  be the best solution to helping (potentially
  saving their life!) the person.
• A simple rule against the use of punishment may
  hurt the person in the long run denies them the
  most effective treatment!)

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4-8. Know how data is often graphed with a single
subject design, and what a reversal design is
(AKA ABA Design) (78102)
Baseline
Lemon juice (intervention)
Baseline
100
of reguritations per day
0
67
5-1. Be able to define Penalty Contingency (also
called negative punishment) (85)

• Penalty Contingency
• The immediate, response contingent removal of a
  reinforcer resulting in a decreased frequency of
  that response.
• Examples take toy away, remove video game, take
  away concert tickets, take away cool purple
  coffee cup

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5-2. Know how Malott distinguishes between
response cost and timeout. Provide examples
of each, and know that both are types of
penalties (88-91)

• Response cost the immediate response contingent
  removal of a tangible reinforcer resulting in a
  decreased frequency of that response (examples as
  before!)
• Timeout the immediate response contingent
  removal of ACCESS TO a reinforcer resulting in a
  decreased frequency of that response.

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5-3. Examples of time out

• Child hits during play time, immediately sits in
  corner unable to play with toys (for x minutes)
  (moving from an enriched environment to an less
  enriched environment) also called exclusionary
  timeout or seclusionary timeout
• Ribbon signifies student receives reinforcers
  (praise, tangibles, etc). Take away ribbon in
  timeout, but nonexclusionary (or inclusionary!)

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5-4. Now we have covered all of the following
which you should be able to define, recognize and
provide examples. (92-93)

• Reinforcement (positive reinforcement)
• Escape (negative reinforcement)
• Punishment (positive punishment)
• Penalty (Negative punishment)

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6-1 Know what Extinction is, that is be able to
recognize, and provide examples, as well as
define the procedure. (106)

• Extinction
• Stopping the reinforcement or escape contingency
  for a previously reinforced response which causes
  the response frequency to decrease.
• Notice, that once you ID the reinforcer for a
  response, you are simply preventing the
  reinforcer from being delivered.

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6-1. Examples of Extinction (be sure to know
examples re positive reinforcement and negative
reinforcement (escape).

• What would you do for each of
• the following scenarios?
• Find out that attention is reinforcing a childs
  crying.
• Find out that giving a child a candy bar in the
  store is reinforcing the childs tantrums.
• Find out that the escape from doing math problems
  is maintaining tantrums.
• Find out that using bleach on your clothes caused
  irritation to your childs skin she keeps
  taking her clothes off.

73
6-2. Be able to describe what an extinction burst
is (110)

• When preventing the delivery of a reinforcer for
  a behavior (that is arranging extinction) that
  behavior may increase dramatically prior to
  extinguishing.
• Examples?

74
6-3. Know how to conduct extinction when a
negative reinforcement contingency is in effect
(119)

• In negative reinforcement, the reinforcer is the
  relief from the aversive condition (stopping or
  reducing the aversive condition immediately after
  the response occurs) Extinguishing a Neg
  Reinforced behavior involves preventing the
  removal of the aversive stimulus
• Examples?

75
6-4. Be able to describe and give/recognize
examples of spontaneous recovery (110)

• A temporary recovery of the extinguished behavior
  during the first part of each of the extinction
  sessions that follow the first session (Malott)
• Or After extinguishing a response (that is, the
  response has stopped) let some time pass, then
  re-present the conditions under which the
  response occurred in the past and the response is
  likely to occur again!
• Examples..

76
6-5. At this point you should be able to provide
examples, distinguish between, and recognize
examples of all of the following

• Positive Reinforcement
• Negative Reinforcement
• Positive Punishment
• Negative Punishment
• Extinction (including bursts and spontaneous
  recovery)

77
6-6. Know that the example Malott gives on Self
Stimulation is an example of automatic
reinforcement. Also know how they prevented the
SR from occurring (112-113)

• Jimmy, hand flapping hypothesized that the
  flapping was maintained by the kinesthetic and
  tactile stimulation (called collectively
  proprioceptive)
• Put a vibrating device on his hand to mask those
  sensations, handflapping stopped.

78
6-7. Distinguish between forgetting and
extinction (121). Know the experiment that
Skinner conducted and what he found (121)

• Extinction withhold reinforcer and the behavior
  decreases/stops (in the presence of the
  conditions that cause it!)
• Forgetting letting time pass and behavior does
  not occur in the presence of the conditions that
  cause it.

79
Extinction vs. Forgetting (continued)

• Skinner put a pigeon in a box and taught the
  pigeon to peck at a particular target. He took
  them out of the experimental setting and kept
  them from being exposed to those same
  experimental conditions for 6 years
• Put them back in and they starting pecking the
  target again!
• Forgetting is likely a function of learning new
  behaviors interfere with old behaviors.

80
7-1. How big is a response? You should be able to
answer this questions using such terms/phrases as
response unit and size of the response (139
and lecture)

• The response in shooting a basket
• Squatting, Hands up, head up, eyes on basket,
  push up with legs, push forward with arms, flex
  wrists, etc.
• It is often difficult to determine the unit of
  the response (the unit that is one response).
  For instance is a peck to a key the response, or
  are 10 pecks to a key the response? When you say
  Good morning! Is the Good one response, and
  morning another? Or is the phonemes involved the
  response (or for that matter, the individual
  movements of the vocal apparatus?

81
7-2. Know Malotts point on process vs. product
(129)

• In changing a behavior, you may need to change
  components of that behavior (that is the behavior
  may involve a number of responses, and you may
  need to modify some of the components to get the
  desired chain of behaviors
• Doing a math problem, playing sports.

82
7-3. Know what response topography is, and
provide/recognize examples. (129)

• Response topography (form of the response)
• The sequence (path of movement), form or location
  of components of a response, relative to the rest
  of the body.
• Contrast the topography of two responses

83
7-4. Be able to distinguish between response and
response product. (lecture only)

• Response is the behavior
• Response product is a permanent or semi-permanent
  alteration in the environment due to the
  response.
• Response throwing a vase
• Response product broken vase, vase on other side
  of room, etc.
• Response moving hand with pencil in it
• Response product the written words.
• Notice that many Crime Scene Investigations
  examine response products and try to make
  conclusions about the responses that occurred. In
  court, the investigators try to also make
  conclusions about the antecedents of the
  responses (motivation, intention etc.)

84
7-5. Be able to list, describe, provide/recognize
examples of the three response dimensions that
Malott provides (130-131)

• Latency the time between the signal or
  opportunity for a response and the beginning of
  that response (i.e. light the key and see how
  long it takes the pigeon to peck that key)
• Duration The time from the beginning to the end
  of the response (notice the problem of defining
  the response unit)
• Example How long can you hold your breath? Hold
  a musical note, maintain eye gaze, keep your eyes
  open while I am lecturing..

85
7-6. Be able to list, describe, provide/recognize
examples of the three response dimensions that
Malott provides (130-131)

• Latency
• Duration
• Force (or intensity) The loudness, amount of
  pressure/force, etc of a response. Notice that
  this is not a speed measure, but rather one
  measured in terms of loudness, pressure, etc.
• Example closing a door versus slamming a door
  saying hi, versus saying HI !!!

86
7-7. Distinguish between product and process as
Malott does (129)

• Process the chain of response that lead to the
  final response
• Product often the response product, or the
  nature of the final response (in tennis, where
  the ball goes, in ballet, the final pose)
• To get the correct product, you may need to
  change earlier links in the chain handwriting
  change the way the pencil is held (better
  writing) Juggling change posture (less
  dropping) Running change gait, (get faster)
  Hold fingers for guitar (play better).

87
7-8. Know what a response dimension is be able
to provide/recognize examples. (131)

• Response dimension the physical properties of a
  response
• The force of a response, the body part used (e.g.
  hold a ball with two fingers, versus all
  fingers), a half wink versus full, etc.
• Is pitch a response dimension?

88
7-9. Be able to define and provide/recognize
examples of a response class (132)

• A set of responses that are similar on at least
  one response dimension or share the effects of
  reinforcement or serve the same function
  (produce the same outcome)
• - effects reinforce one response other similar
  responses increases in frequency
• - function can get reinforced for a variety of
  topographies (but function is the same) e.g. say
  hello, Hi, Whazzzz up?, Howdy, Yo!

89
7-10. Know what differential reinforcement and
differential punishment is, and be able to
generate/recognize examples of each (135-144)

• Differential SR just like our previous DRA
  you reinforce some behaviors (or punish) and do
  not reinforce (or punish) other behaviors.
• Examples?
• By Positive SR
• By Negative SR
• By Punishment (pos neg)

90
7-11. Know how Pryor, and others, trained
creativity (136)

• Differentially reinforce novel behaviors that
  is, if a behavior occurred recently, do not
  reinforce it, if it did not reinforce it.
  Increases variability.
• Pryor Dolphins
• Goetz Baer Building block forms

91
8-1. Know how shaping is defined, when it is
used, and be able to provide and recognize
examples of it. (150-156)

• Shaping differential reinforcement of successive
  approximations of the target response
• Differential reinforcement reinforcement of some
  responses and not others
• Successive approximations The responses that are
  reinforced are gradually changed until the target
  response is reached
• Target response the final response desired

92
8-2. Examples of shaping

• Shaping exercise!

93
8-3. Examples of shaping..

• Train a dog to fetch the newspaper.
• Put newspaper out, sit with clicker (huh?) and
  wait until the dog turns around (Click!)
• Give dog biscuit
• Dog turns and takes a step toward paper click!
  food
• Dog turns and takes a step nothing then another
  step, click!
• And so on..

94
8-4. How can shaping occur using punishment (157)

• Differential punishment of all behavior except
  those which more and more closely resemble the
  terminal behavior.
• Same as with reinforcement, but..
• Some responses are punished, and others not.
  Getting closer and closer to target response
• E.g. learning to walk, bang into walls, tables,
  etc. until stable walking emerges
• Learning to snowboard, ride a bike, etc.

95
10-1. Know that aversive stimulation will
function as an establishing operation, and be
able to describe its effects (177)

• When an organism is exposed to aversive
  stimulation
• signs of damage to another organism may become
  reinforcing
• Responses which cause damage to another organism
  may be evoked.

96
10-2. Be familiar with some of experimental
research which show the point made in objective
10-1. Be able to provide your own examples.
(176-178)

• Rats in box, shocked
• Pigeons extinction
• Humans?
• (Azrin et. Al)

97
10-3. What are the reinforcers involved in
aggression (179)

• Signs of damage to other organism
• Response-produced stimulation feel of teeth in
  skin, muscle movements, thuds, etc.

98
10-4. Malott makes a good point on 179 regarding
letting off steam Be able to explain his point.

• Traditionally we believe that pressure builds up
  in a person and the explosion (often
  aggression) releases that pressure.
• Research does not support that aggression leads
  to more aggression by others and the aggressor!

99
10-5. Malott discusses Passive aggression. Know
what PA is, recognize/provide examples, and how
he says it comes about. (180)

• No awareness necessary (not intentional!)
• Say things/do things/ that may produce signs of
  damage on other person (but not overtly
  aggressive no hitting, etc. usually words).
• EX Light off on stairs, say potentially hurtful
  things, hang out with exes, etc.

100
10-6. Malott discusses the nature of drug
addiction. Be able to reiterate his points (181)

• Drug addiction may start in response to an
  impoverished environment a generally aversive
  environment, dugs reduce that aversiveness.
• Drug addition may be continued due to the
  reinforcing nature of drugs (powerful, unlearned
  reinforcers)

101
11-1. Be able to define learned (conditioned)
reinforcer, as well as provide and recognize
examples (187)

• Learned (conditioned) reinforcer
• A stimulus, event, or condition that is a
  reinforcer because it has been paired with
  another reinforcer
• Examples sight of money, Good job!, sight of
  particular position on chessboard,

102
11-2. You should be able to describe how the
pairing is conducted to establish a conditioned
reinforcer (or aversive stimulus) (187)

• Neutral stimulus is presented, and immediately
  after a reinforcer (or aversive stimulus) is
  presented. With a number of pairings, the neutral
  stimulus will function as a reinforcer (or
  aversive stimulus)
• (neutral stimulus in this case means it will not
  function as a reinforcer)
• Attention food, water, etc.
• Clicker biscuit given

103
11-3.Be able to define Generalized learned
(conditioned) reinforcer, recite how it is
established, and provide/recognize examples (190)

• Generalized conditioned reinforcer is a neutral
  stimulus that has been paired with a variety of
  reinforcers when the organism has been deprived
  of those various reinforcers (or said another way
  the appropriate ________ ________ were in
  effect)
• Examples?

104
11-3.Be able to explain what a token economy is,
and provide examples of how it works (the
pre-training, the backup reinforcers, the
contingencies) (191)

• Token Economy a system of generalized learned
  reinforcers in which the organism that receives
  those generalized learned reinforcers can save
  them and exchange them for a variety of backup
  reinforcers
• Pretraining pairing procedure
• Backup reinforcers whatever the tokens are
  exchanged for
• The contingencies e.g. 20 tokens for a toy
• Examples of token economies??

105
11-4. Be able to describe how a learned aversive
stimulus (or condition) is created (194)

• Pair a neutral stimulus with an aversive stimulus
  (a number of times) and the neutral stimulus will
  become a conditioned aversive stimulus.
• How do you know it is a CAS?
• How can it be made into a generalized conditioned
  aversive stimulus?

106
11-5. Be able to describe how a conditioned
reinforcer or a conditioned aversive condition is
unlearned (195)

• Stop pairing the learned stimulus with the
  reinforcer or the aversive stimulus
• Eventually the conditioned stimulus will lose the
  effect (reinforcing or aversive).
• Lots of examples (e.g. friends, who now are not
  friends)

107
12-1. Be able to define, provide and recognize
examples of a Discriminative Stimulus (207)

• Discriminative Stimulus a stimulus in the
  presence of which a particular response has been
  reinforced (and in its absence is not reinforced)
• See friend with smile on face say Hi and they
  say hi back (no smile, no hi back!)
• Green light on key, peck, and food delivered
  (pigeon no green light, no food when peck)
• Say Sit dog sits, gets treat (when dont say
  sit and dog sits, no treat.

108
12-2. Be able to describe how you would establish
an SD (207)

• Establish the word Sit as an SD for a dog to
  sit
• Train dog to sit (e.g. shaping).
• Then say sit, dog sits, SR
• Dont say sit, dog sits, no SR
• Repeat this process until dog only sits when you
  say sit
• Sit is now and SD for sitting!

109
12-3. Be able to define S-Delta, as well as
provide and recognize examples. (207)

• S-delta is a stimulus (or condition), which when
  presented, and a response occurs, the response is
  not reinforced.
• E.g. Green banana, eat it, no SR (or even
  punishment!) (Green banana s-delta, SD yellow
  banana!)
• Pigeon, green light, peck SR, red light, peck
  no SR. Pecks green but not red (red s-delta)
• Friend, smile say Hi, SR Frown, say Hi, no SR
  (frown S-delta)

110
12-4. Be able to define escape-based
discrimination , as well as provide and recognize
examples. (207)

• SD trained via negative reinforcement in the
  presence of an aversive stimulus, another
  stimulus (or condition) occurs and if the correct
  response occurs, the response is reinforced. In
  the absence of the SD the response is not
  reinforced.
• Pigeon loud noise on peck red key loud noise
  goes off (SD) peck green key sound stays on
  (S-delta)
• Dog Very hot outside, scratches at door. If
  light is on (owner is in) door will open and dog
  cools off in AC. If light is off (owner away)
  scratch is not reinforced.
• Human Rainy out, trying to get cab if see
  empty cab (SD) you wave it down, if full you do
  not (s-delta)

111
12-5. Know what incidental teaching is, and its
relevance (216)

• Incidental teaching
• The planned use of behavioral contingencies,
  differential reinforcement, and discrimination
  training in the students everyday life (versus
  only in special training sessions).
• Generally the goal of training to make the person
  more adapted to their daily environment that is
  in the classroom, at home, in church, in
  restaurants, etc. We try to get the training to
  Transfer to other more relevant settings.

112
12-6. Know what we mean by Verbal Behavior (217)

• Verbal Behavior what is traditionally called
  language. From a BA perspective, Language is
  simply more behavior!
• Skinner (1957) defines it as Behavior (of the
  speaker) which is reinforced by the actions of
  another person (a listener), and that person who
  reinforces (the listener) has been specifically
  trained to respond that way.
• Notice that VB is defined FUNCTIONALLY and is not
  limited to talking

113
12-7. Be able to provide and recognize examples
of VB

• You say what time is it? and your friend say 3
  pm
• You get a glass of water.
• You say water and your mother brings you a
  glass of water.
• Your dog scratches at the door and you open the
  door to let him out.
• You use sign language to sigh What is your name
  and your friend signs back Gerald
• You sneak up behind your friend and say Boo!
  and your friend jumps.

114
12-8. Be able to define Mand and provide and
recognize examples (217)

• Mand VB which is caused by an MO, and is
  reinforced by whatever the MO increases in value
  (the value altering effect!).
• Example When water deprived, you say water and
  your mom gives you water
• It is hot you say AC on Please and your friend
  turns on the cars AC.
• A baby cries and you pick up the baby.
• A baby cries and you give it milk.

115
12-9. Be able to define Tact and provide and
recognize examples (217)

• A verbal response which is evoked by a nonverbal
  SD and is reinforced with some form of
  conditioned reinforcer (not the object specified
  in the tact!)
• Nonverbal SD a discriminative stimulus that is
  the response product of verbal behavior (e.g. It
  is not a written word, a spoken word, an signed
  word, etc.) Usually it is an object, e.g. an
  orange, a truck, boxer shorts.

116
12-9 (cont). Examples of Tacts

• See an orange, and say orange, parent say
  Right!
• See an orange and say round, Friend says, It
  sure is!
• See dog and say rover, and rover wags tail.
• ?? See the word water and say water.

117
13-1. Know what is meant by a concept, and how it
is trained. (227-228)

• A class of stimuli that evoke a particular
  response, and novel examples from that class also
  evoke that response.
• Ex. Human Herrstein Loveland taugh pigeons to
  peck one key for pics with humans in it, and not
  if no human in it. The pigeons were also able to
  do this with ne pics.
• Watanabe et al, trained pigeons to discriminate
  between impressionists (Monet) and cubists
  (Picasso). They did so quite well (even to novel
  painting of other impressionists/cubists

118
13-2. Know how to train up a concept. Concept
training 229

• Present many examples of concept and many
  non-examples. Reinforce correct responses
• To test if the concept has occurred, bring in new
  examples (e.g. it training the concept of chair
  bring in pictures of different types of chairs
  that were not trained)

119
13-3. Know the difference between discrimination
and generalization (231-232)

• Discrimination responding differentially to two
  different stimuli
• Generalization responding the same to two
  different stimuli (often they are similar though.
  
• Discrimination is the opposite of generalization.
  

120
Discrimination vs. Generalization
121
13-5. Know what stimulus dimension is, and be
able to recognize/provide examples. (232)

• Dimensions is an aspect of an object for
  instance an apple can be red, roundish, soft,
  crunchy, shiny, have a stem,
• Stimuli that can not stand on their own are often
  called abstractions. That is you can not had
  someone redness yet it is an aspect of an
  apple. It has also been defined as a
  discrimination based on a single property of a
  stimulus (p 250, Learning, Catania)
• Examples??

122
13-6. Know what fading is, and how it is related
to errorless discrimination procedure. 232-233

• Fading is the process of changing some aspect of
  a stimulus to make it similar too, or much more
  different from, some other stimulus.
• Ex Fading in. want to teach a child to
  distinguish between cat and a dog use a picture
  of a white cat and a black dog, gradually change
  the color of the cat to black as well.

123
Fading out.From http//psyc.uwec.edu/lm/ch5/sld0
18.htm
124
12-7 Know what the errorless discrimination
procedure is (233)

• errorless discrimination is the use of fading to
  establish a discrimination, or a behavior, with
  no errors during the training.
• With children learning tacts, you might show them
  a picture of a horse then immediately say horse
  and they say horse, and get SR.
• Gradually faded out you saying horse either
  temporally (longer time to saying it) or say it
  softer and softer each time.

125
13-8. Be able to distinguish between shaping,
reinforcer reduction and fading. (234)

• We reduce the reinforcement for some behavior for
  a variety of reasons cost effectiveness, make
  it more like the natural environment, etc.
• Shaping DR of successive approximations to a
  target response
• Fading add in or remove some aspect of a
  stimulus
• Reinforcer reduction reduce the maount/nature of
  a reinforcer (may go SR to Sr) SR Unlearned
  reinforcer, Sr learned (conditioned)

126
13-9. Know what a stimulus generalization
gradient is, and how to conduct one (235-236)

• A stimulus generalization gradient shows the
  extent which untrained stimuli evoke a similar
  response as a trained (but similar stimulus)
• EX train a pigeon to peck a yellow key, (i.e. it
  has to peck it 20 times to get SR). Then present
  colors that differe silghtly, e.g. yellow with a
  bit of blue, and yellow with a bit of red. Do not
  SR any responses on these (thus under extinction)

127
(No Transcript)
128
13-10. Know how to conduct matching to sample,
and its relevance (238)

• Matching-to-sample present one stimulus (sample)
  then at least two other stimuli (comparisons) and
  the participant must select the comparison that
  matches the sample.
• You can also conduct Delayed matching to
  sample.

129
3-seconds food
3-seconds blackout
25-second ITI
130
Matching to sample.

• Present the sample, once attended too,
• present the choices (randomly assign where they
  appear)
• Randomly present which stimulus is presented as
  the sample on each trail (e.g. red or blue)

131
13-11. Know what symbolic matching to sample is
(239)

• In Symbolic MTS, the sample and the comparison
  are not the same type of stimuli
• e.g. Present Word Dog and a picture of a dog
  and a cat. The student much select the picture of
  the dog.
• Relevance?

132
13-12. Know what Delayed matching to sample is
and how it is conducted (lecture only)

• Conducted in the same manner as MTS, but once the
  sample is attended too, the sample is turned off
  for X seconds, then the comparison stimuli are
  presented and the student must select the
  matching stimulus.
• Often considered a model of Short term memory.

133
5
3-seconds food
3-seconds blackout
25-second ITI
134
14-1. Kn0w in general what imitation is and why
it is useful (245)

• Imitation one person sees another person do a
  behavior and the first person does the same
• Notice that this is not as simple as it seems
• What you see other person do is different from
  what you see when you do it
• Imitating vocalizations is not the same as you
  only hear what is say, do not see much of the
  muscle movements.
• Some imitation is probably innate (smiles in
  babies)

135
14-2. Know how you could train a person to
imitate motor movements using physical prompts
and reinforcements 245-247

• If imitations does not occur (e.g. you clap your
  hands and child does not clap.
• Clap your hands, then physically guide their
  hands to do the same, SR
• Do this a number of times, gradually fading out
  the physical prompt
• Eventually the child will clap when you clap
  (imitate)

136
14-3. Know the relevance/importance of imitation

• If a person can imitate, then you can get the
  behavior to occur, and reinforce it. Then, it is
  simply a matter of getting the behavior to occur
  under the appropriate stimulus control (that is
  the correct SD evokes the response!)
• E.g. hand clapping, when you clap, but get it to
  occur when others clap (e.g. at a play)

137
14-4. Know what generalized imitation is and how
it is established (246-247)

• Generalized imitation
• Imitation of the response of a model without
  previous reinforcement for imitating that
  response in the past.
• If this does not exist, it is established like
  concepts are established train up many
  examples, (e.g. reinforced handclapping when see
  hand clapping, waving when see waving, etc), then
  test to see if it will occur to a new response
  e.g. shake hands with someone, and they do too.

138
14-5. Describe how could you get a child to start
describing past events (259)

• After something occurs, e.g. swinging, ask child
  what did we just do?
• At the end of the day, ask child what was done
  during the day, add in partial prompts if needed,
  and reinforce!
• tacts of things past

139
15-1. Be able to describe the device used to help
SID maintain posture (based on Azrin et al, 1968,
p 260)

• Device on back, when Sid Slouched, the switch was
  turned on and a speaker emitted a click, then 3
  seconds later, a loud sound, as Malott writes
  sort of electronic flatulence.
• What functions does the loud sound serve?
• What function does the click serve?

140
15-2. Know how avoidance works, and what it is (a
form of Neg SR). (Class only)

• Avoidance
• 1. a neutral stimulus becomes aversive via
  pairing with an aversive stimulus (becomes a
  learned, or conditioned aversive stimulus). The
  click became aversive.
• 2. The CAS functions to cause a response with
  terminates the CAS, or prevents the presentation
  of the UAS (in this case the loud tone). When the
  click occurs, Sid straightens back.

141
15-3. Malott provides many examples of avoidance
contingencies, be able to recognize as well as
provide your own good and bad examples (261)

• Walking avoid bumping into things (sight of
  things looming closer)
• Riding bike (balance, etc)
• Boss approaching, parent approaching, etc.

142
15-4. Recognize, or provide examples of avoidance
vs. escape. Be able to define each. Notice that I
have defined them somewhat differently than
Malott. Finally be able to explain how the
avoidance response develops (265)

• Avoidance a behavior that terminates a
  conditioned aversive stimulus (which also
  prevents the presentation of a unconditioned
  Aversive stimulus)
• Escape a behavior that terminates an
  unconditioned aversive stimulus
• Notice how things that reliably precede escape
  will come to be avoided
• Snapping of a twig in the woods
• The sound of a car approaching from blind side

143
15-4 (cont.) The development of the avoidance
response

• Your dog has a sensitive area on its
  hindquarters. One day, you are petting your dog
  (while watching TV) and your hand moves to his
  lower back, he puts his head up and utters a low
  growl. You continue to pet, he bites your hand
• In the future when you pet and he utters the low
  growl, you immediately take your hand away. (the
  low growl has become a CAS).

144
15-5. Know what is wrong with the following .
(261)

• Avoidance Contingency
• The immediate response-contingent prevention of
  an aversive condition resulting in an increased
  frequency of that response.
• prevention means there is no change in the
  environment (thus what is the reinforcer?
  nothing is terminated, nothing is added to
  environment)

145
15-6. Be able to define, recognize and provide
examples of Teleology (273)

• Teleology
• Stating that future events cause current actions
• -- The rat pressed the lever to get the food, or
  the rat pressed the lever because it prevents the
  shock from coming.
• -- We study because if we do we will get a good
  grade.

146
16-1. Punishment by prevention of removal
contingency is not widely accepted in Behavior
Analysis. Know the reasons why I introduce
alternative explanations, as well a be able to
provide those alternative explanations for the
examples Malott provides (276lecture)

• Punishment by the prevention of removal
  contingency (definition)
• The immediate, response-contingent prevention of
  removal of an aversive condition resulting in an
  decreased frequency of that response

147
16-1. Punishment by prevention of removal
contingency is not widely accepted in Behavior
Analysis. Know the reasons why I introduce
alternative explanations, as well a be able to
provide those alternative explanations for the
examples Malott provides (276lecture)

• Prevention involves no change in the environment
  thus what is the consequence? In most cases, no
  change in the environment means extinction is
  operating (especially if we see a decrease in
  behavior)
• Prevention implies some sort of expectation of An
  SR to come (a bit teleological, and expectation
  has to be defined, but is not measurable)

148
16-2. Examples reconsidered speck in eye (276)

• In the past when one has a speck in their eye,
  batting eyelids was successful in getting speck
  out thus the response is strong.
• Currently, this response is unsuccessful that
  is the pain remains, thus batting eyelids is
  extinguished. (and other behaviors occur, such as
  asking another to get it out!)

149
16-2 (examples reconsidered.) Head banging.

• Contingency if Jimmy asks for food he gets it
• Contingency if Jimmy asks for food and is (or
  just has) banged his head, no food
• SD asking for food with no head banging
• SDelta asking for follow after or during head
  banging (and al the stimuli associated with that)
  (notice that this is a form of extinctions, which
  fits with the prevention issue)
• (original examples claims head banging decreases
  as it prevents the food being given)
• (--Same analysis for Bills face slapping.)

150
21-1. Chapter 21 Respondent conditioning - be
able to describe the basic terms used in this
type of learning, and the type of general
learning it involves (356)

• Respondent Conditioning A-B
• Operant Conditioning A-B-C
• Neutral Stimulus A stimulus that does not elicit
  a CR/UR of interest

151
21-1 Respondent conditioning - be able to
describe the basic terms used in this type of
learning, and the type of general learning it
involves (356)

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US) a stimulus that
  produces the unconditioned response without
  previous pairing with another stimulus
• Unconditioned Response (UR) an unlearned
  response elicited by the presentation of an US
• Neutral Stimulus A stimulus that does not elicit
  a CR/UR of interest
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) a stimulus that
  acquires its eliciting properties through
  pairings with another stimulus
• Conditioned response (CR) a learned response
  elicited by the presentation of a conditioned
  stimulus

152
21-2. Know how to create a CS that is, you
should be able to provide all the steps involved
in creating a CS (class). Be able to recognize
and provide you own examples.

• Test NS NS ? no CR
• Test US US ? UR
• Pair NS and US NS..US ? US (many times)
• Test NS NS?CR, then NS is now CS!
• Examples?

153
21-3. Know what respondent extinction is and how
it is conducted.(363)

• Present the CS without the US a number of times
  and eventually the CS will revert back to a NS
  (that is no CR will be elicited)

154
21-4. Know how to conduct higher Order
conditioning (also called second order
conditioning) (363)
A CS is used as the US, thus NS CS (paired
many times)?CR NS becomes a CS eliciting the
CR Light is paired with a tone (the tone already
elicits the CR of salivation) Light the elicits
the CR (but much less) The light will extinguish
faster than the tone will.
155
21-5. Know what a phobia is, and how it is
established and cured Be able to describe
Watsons experiment with little Albert. (354,
359-360)

• Phobia long-lasting, intense, irrational fear.
• E.g. fear of dogs, spiders, snakes, flying,
  driving in cars,
• See http//phobialist.com/A- for lots of them!
• Phobias often established similar to how Watson
  showed with Little Albert

156
21-6. Be able to describe how operant and
respondent conditioning interact in a phobia (