The Human and Natural Environments of China

1
The Human and Natural Environments of China
2
Environmental Infrastructure

• Policy Making - State Environmental Protection
  Agency (SEPA)
  
• EPBs and EPOs
• Monitoring - National Environmental Quality
  Monitoring Network
  
• Other Agencies

3
VERTICAL vs. LATERAL APPROACHbasic structure of
Chinas approach to the development of
environmental policies

• Lateral - public demand for regulation of
  economic activities give rise state regulations.
  Heavy involvement of NGOs. (United States)
  
• Vertical international concern gives rise to
  state initiated regulations. Government monopoly.
  (China)

4
WHY VERTICAL factors supporting the vertical
political institution

• Poverty and focus on growth
• Limited environmental information
• Limits on public participation and efficacy
• Sims, 1999

5
INSTITUTIONAL OBSTACLES as impediments to
states effort to develop enforce standards

• Economic Growth Imperative To get rich is
  glorious.
  
• Weak Legal Framework
• Weak Law Enforcement
• Regional Disparities
• Guanxi connection economy
• Sims, 1999

6
STRUCTURAL OBSTACLES for enforcement of standards

• Fragmented Authority
• Bureaucratic Complexity
• Decentralization as an Institutional Deficiency
• Weak Position of NEPA (until recently)
• Small Institutions, Large Problems
• Sims, 1999

7
CHINESE POLICY HISTORYGovernmental efforts to
address environmental problems, 1974-97

• 1974 formation of State Council Environ.
  Problems Leading Group
  
• 1978 Economic Reform Program launched
• 1979 Environmental Protection Law enacted
• 1983 Govt. declared environmental protection
  basic national policy
  
• 1987 NEPA gained cabinet status ? SEPA
• Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law
  promulgated
  
• 1992 China among first nations to act on Rio
  agenda
  
• issued Ten Strategic Policies for
  Development and the
  
• Environment
• 1996 State Council approved Ninth 5-Year Plan
  for Environmental
  
• Protection.

8
Environmental Issues

• Land Use
• Agriculture
• Deforestation, Nature Reserves
• Water Shortages / Pollution
• Energy
• Coal
• Renewables and the Future
• Air Pollution
• Solid Waste and Consumerism

9
Land Use

• Agriculture
• Land Degradation
• Deforestation
• Nature Reserves

10
Distribution of Cropland
Agriculture

• Majority of production in south and east
• Rice in south
• Wheat in north

http//www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/china.html
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Where have all the flowers gone?
Agriculture
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Direct Causes of Land Loss
Agriculture
Table 15 Major Causes of Arable Land Degradation
in China, 1996   (1,000,000 hectares) Category
Area Per cent   Erosion 40 48.1 Ar
id land degradation (desertification) 15 18.0
Salinization-alkalization and water-logging
6 7.3 Pollution 10 12.0 Total
83.2 100.0
Edmonds, Managing the Chinese Environment
13
Indirect Land Loss I
Agriculture

• Industrial, urban, infrastructure development
• Intrusion of polluting industries

14
Indirect Land Loss II
Agriculture
Table 7 The Impact of State and Collective
Construction, Peasant House-building, Structural
Adjustment in Agriculture, and Natural
Disasters on Arable Land Availability China,
1987-1991   Proportion of arable land loss resul
ting from State Collective House
Structural Natural
Year construction construction building
adjustment disasters   1987 11.2
5.8 5.1 63.5 14.4
1988 11.4 4.5 3.4 57.1 2
3.6 1989 2.3 5.4 3.7 55.4
23.2 1990 13.1 7.2 3.5 60.0 1
6.3 1991 13.0 7.5 2.3 52.4 24.
9
Edmonds, Managing the Chinese Environment
15
State of Food Resources
Agriculture

• UN Projects 0.06 hectares/capita for 2025 (1/10
  of US)
  
• Chinese government committed to policy of grain
  self-sufficiency, although has not met this goal
  in past 40 years
  
• Worlds 1 producer of pork, eggs, wheat, cotton,
  tobacco, rice

16
Notes for Future
Agriculture

• Land reclamation in north-east and north-west
• Built over land extremely difficult to return to
  production
  
• Health effects
• Aquaculture
• Global climate change?

17
Deforestation in China
Forests / Reserves

• China low on forests / capita (1/8 global
  average)
  
• Most pressure on forests?

Timber / Logging production nearly doubled in
1980s alone
Fuel forests provide 40 of fuel for rural
households
18
Nature Reserves
Forests / Reserves

• First nature reserve founded in 1956
• Reserve system covers United States? Costa Rica?
  
• Concerns over habitat fragmentation

4.7
25
19
Expansion of Reserve System
Forests / Reserves
20
Less , mo problems
Forests / Reserves

• Growth in national reserve system not accompanied
  by growth in financial support
  
• 30 million Chinese live in poverty in and around
  reserves (50 total)
  
• Govt encourages local EPBs, reserve managers to
  diversify funding sources

21
Nature Whats?
Forests / Reserves

• fully exploit the resource advantages of nature
  reserves and on the basis of strengthening
  conservation, rationally open up utilization,
  develop your own industries, and increase
  reserves abilities for self-accumulation and
  self-development

Edmonds, Managing the Chinese Environment
22
Issues on Reserves
Forests / Reserves

• Lack of funding
• Intensified pressure outside of reserves
• Local poverty
• Weak central body vs. local collectives
• Lack of coercive power

23
Legend of Yu

• When widespread waters swelled to the Heaven and
  serpents and dragons did harm, Yao sent Yu to
  control the waters and to drive out the serpents
  and dragons. The waters were controlled and
  flowed to the east. The serpents and dragons
  plunged to their places.

24
WATERfactors leading to water scarcity and
lowering water quality

• Extreme weather ? floods droughts
• Irrigation ? contamination, unsustainable
  extraction, inefficient system wasting 60 on
  average
  
• Heavy Sedimentation ? floods
• Industrial pollution ?contamination

25
POLLUTIONas an industrial and agricultural
factor leading to quality degradation

• Sources of pollution
• 1. untreated municipal industrial waste water
  discharge
  
• 2. agricultural run-off
• 3. leaching from industrial solid waste
• 4. discharge and spills from water crafts
• Figure 7.1 and 7.2 pg. 90 blue water clear skies
• Effects
• 1. Much of Chinas River is below Grade 3
  quality (minimum standard for potable water
  system)
  
• 2. unsafe water ? disruptive relocation of water
  supply ? shortage
  
• 3. transmission of infectious diseases

26
Water factors leading to water scarcity and
lowering water quality

• Urbanization ? unsustainable extraction
• Underinvestment in water supply infrastructure ?
  inefficient delivery
  
• Outdate production technology ? waste
• Coal based 500-1000 tons water
• 1 ton ammonia
• Gas based 12 tons water
• 1 ton ammonia
• Upstream development ? river diversion

27
WATER POLICIESfrom centralization to
decentralization to market oriented

• Central govt. allotted water to filial
• provinces and districts ?
  competition1949
  
• Decentralization during Water Reform gives local
  government more authority ? competition among
  local authorities1979
  
• Water Law enacted to allocate water quotas to
• Provinces ? overuse1987
• Water Law amendment - market oriented 2002
• 1. withdrawal rights
• 2. water resource fees
• 3. centralized control over diversion

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Case study Yellow River Basin Dispute

• The background
• Drought in 2002, Yellow River run-off below YRCC
  minimum.
  
• YRCC cut off some irrigation water gates to
• Shandong ? heavy crop loss switched to
• ground water use ? danger of overdrafting.
• The conflict
• Shandong went to Beijing and begged for water.
• Beijing ordered YRCC to grant Shandong water at
  expense of other provinces.
  
• The result
• YRCC diverted water from upper river provinces
  Ning Xia and Inner Mongolia ? heavy agricultural
  damages.
  

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Lessons from the Yellow River Basin Dispute

• One of the many interregional water conflicts
  happening in China.
  
• Fear of re-allocation causes provinces to max out
  their quotas to protect their allocation.
  
• Government should foster conservation instead of
  encouraging overuse by
  
• 1. compensating provinces that lost water due to
  diversion
  
• 2. allowing trading of water allocations
• 3. imposing fines on provinces that exceed
  their quota
  
• 4. increasing coordination and cooperation
  between water provinces to keep water allocation
  fair and water use efficient.
  

31
WATER POLICIESFuture outlook on policies. Toward
a market-oriented approach

• Endorse polluter liability
• Price increase to account for externalities
• Preferential taxation
• Rehabilitation projects
• Invest in sewage systems
• Loans to support environ. sound technology

32
OBSTACLES

• State owned factories have no identifiable owner
  ? cant be sued
  
• Local resistance
• Economic growth imperatives still strong despite
  social costs
  
• Institutional deficiencies still exist

33
Energy and China

• Why high energy consumption?
• China 25 gigajoules / capita 1/2 global
  mean 1/5 Japanese
  
• Economic security, healthcare, education not
  associated with lower than 50 GJ

34
Coal
Energy I

• Huge, high grade coal reserves
• Largest producer of coal in world
• Supplies almost 80 of total energy needs
• Dependence unlikely to change in coming decades
  (coal dominating expansion of electricity
  generation)

35
Coal and the Environment
Energy I

• Dirtiest of fossil fuels (particulate matter,
  SOx, etc)
  
• Average sulfur content 1.2 (not high)
• Some southern coals up to 5 (localized
  acidification)
  
• High levels of arsenic, flourine

36
AIR POLLUTION

• 6 of 8 most polluted cities in the world are from
  China
  
• Air pollution (outdoor and indoor) associated
  with
  
• - premature deaths
• - chronic bronchitis
• - lung cancer
• - sever respiratory illness
• - acid rain
• Social cost 3 GDP

37
AIR POLLUTION statistics

• 21 million tons SO2 are emitted into the
  atmosphere each year
  
• 14 million tons of smoke-filled dust
• 13 million tons of suspended particulate matter.
  
  
• WHO, 1998
• World Bank estimate
• - fine particulate emission will increase 35
  between 1995 and 2020
  
• - nitrogen oxide will increase rapidly from
  1995 2020 due to
  
• increased oil consumption by motor
  vehicles
  
• - sulfur dioxide will increase by 150 by 2020

38
AIR POLLUTION

• Major Causes
• 1. coal consumption from industry and coal
  burning stoves
  
• few coal-fired power plants in China have flue
  gas
  
• desulferization equipment ? increase in sulfur
  emission
  
• China is the worlds largest producer and
  consumer of coal
  
• (Cook, 2002)
• 2. low energy-efficient vehicular traffic
• Chinese vehicles emit
• 2.5 to 7.5 times more hydrocarbons,
• 2 to 7 times more nitrous oxides
• 6 to 12 times more carbon monoxide
• .than foreign vehicles

39
AIR POLLUTION POLICIES1995 and 2000 Air
Pollution Prevention and Control Law

• Shift toward total emission control instead of
  concentration from point source control
  
• Increase power of SEPA and local environmental
  bureau
  
• Promote and encourage use of clean-coal
  technology
  
• Demarcate areas where sales and emission of
  pollution are prohibited
  

40
INSTITUTIONAL OBSTACLESto implementing air
pollution standards

• Weak Central Govt
• Municipal environmental protection authorities
  are more beholden to local governments than to
  SEPA.
  
• Guanxi
• Local governments are often major shareholders
  of polluting enterprises ? conflict of interest.
  
  
• Economic Growth Imperative
• Many local governments are also concerned about
  unemployment if they close down polluting
  factories or mines producing low-quality coal.

41
Alternatives to Fossil Fuels?
Energy II

• Nuclear Power
• Wind (Inner Mongolia)
• Geothermal (Tibet)
• Solar (Arid Interior)
• Hydropower

42
Hydropower!
Energy II

• China has greatest potential for hydropower in
  world
  
• How to take advantage of it

Three
Gorges
Dam
!!!
43
SOLID WASTEconsequences of consumer culture and
industrialization

• Average house hold income increased 74.5 since
  1994 rise of factories urbanization
  population growth ? consumer culture cultivated ?
  increase in solid waste
• Waste increase by 10 per year
• Beijing besieged by 4700 rubbish dumps

44
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

• Central govt. create waste management policies
• Implementation of policies left to municipal and
  provincial govt.
  
• Implementation of environmental standards
  regarding solid waste in the hand of Local
  Environmental Protection Agency
  

45
OBSTACLES

• Inadequate and inefficient landfill systems and
  facilities
  
• Lack of funding for waste management
  infrastructure
  
• Lack of recycling technology

46
Case study WHITE POLLUTION

• Two types of WHITE POLLUTION
• 1. agricultural plastic waste
  (firms)
  
• 2. post-consumption waste
• (individuals)
• Embrace of Western consumerism
• ? 21 increase in demand for plastic

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DEFICIENCIES IN REDUCING WHITE POLLUTION

• Institutional
• City Sanitation Bureau on same hierarchy as
  local EPB ? lack of EPB influence on CSB
  
• CSB primarily collect and treat. No incentive to
  encourage environmentally sound behavior.
  
• Economic
• Lack of economic incentive to use alternative
• Lack of funding for collection system
• Social
• Lack of public environmental awareness
• No incentive to discourage littering

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Concluding Remarks

• International Participation
• The Role of NGOs
• Remaining Challenges for China

49
INTERNATIONAL PARTICIPATION

• Motivation for Chinas involvement in the
  international environmental policy arena
  
• 1. Foreign loans and investments
• Membership in World Bank, UNESCO, UNDP, Asia
  Development Bank
  
• 2. Trade and other diplomatic privileges.
• Montreal Protocol, Convention on International
  Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and
  Fauna have provisions for trade sanctions in case
  of non- compliance
• 3. Sharing of scientific knowledge and
  technology
  
• 4. Sharing cost of environmental protection

50
NGOs and goNGOs

• goNGOs Government Organized NGOs
• Made of every ministry of the central government
  
  
• Claim to an environmental or social mandate.
  Promotion of Green Culture.
  
• Sccept funds foreign organizations that don't
  want to give money directly to the government.
  
• Support all government environmental initiatives
  w/o criticizing ineffective policies or
  practices.
  
• Ex China Cultural Academys Green Cultural
  Branch, Global Village Cultural Centre, Green
  Earth Volunteers

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Bilateral Activities

• Belgium UN Food and Agriculture Organization ?
  Green Great Wall sand fixation effort
  
• Japan Asia Development Bank? Promotion of clean
  production technology, coal dependency reduction,
  solar power harnessing.
  
• Canada Sustainable Development Research Institute
  ? regional sustainable development case study for
  Pearl River Delta
  
• European Union ? improve factory efficiency with
  new production techniques.
  

52
NGOs in CHINA

• Difficult to establish because
• 1. non-governmental nature seen as
  subversive to Communist Party
  
• 2. need sponsorship to establish
• tie to government
• 3. seen by goNGOs as competitors of
  limited resources
  
• Face obstacles due to lack of influence

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NGOs FUNCTIONS

• Educate the public on environmental problems
• Promote public involvement
• Lobby government on issues regarding
  environmental policies
  
• Ex Chinese Society for Environ. Sciences, China
  Environmental Culture Promotion Society, China
  Environmental Protection Fund

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The Environmental Future?

• Good?
• Worse?
• Uh oh?

Inspired by Green China (Murray and Cook)
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Recap of Major Challenges

• Defining role of local vs. national environmental
  actors
  
• Funding of EPBs
• Guanxi
• Environmental education / public participation
• Responding to global climate change
• Population growth