Mechanical Sensors

1
Mechanical Sensors

• Chapter 6

2
Force sensors

• A class of sensors
• Includes a fairly large number of different
  sensors
• Based on many principles
• Will discuss four types of general sensors
• force sensors
• accelerometers
• pressure sensors
• gyroscopes
• cover most principles involved in sensing of
  mechanical quantities - directly and indirectly.

3
Force sensors

• Some of these sensors are used for applications
  which initially do not seem to relate to
  mechanical quantities.
• Example measure temperature through expansion of
  gases in a volume (pneumatic temperature sensor
  discussed in chapter 3).
• Some mechanical sensors do not involve motion or
  force.
• Example the fiber optic gyroscope and will be
  discussed below

4
Force sensors - Strain Gauges

• Strain gauge - The main tool in sensing force.
• Strain gauges, measure strain
• Strain can be related to stress, force, torque
  and a host of other stimuli including
  displacement, acceleration or position.
• At the heart of all strain gauges is the change
  in resistance of materials due to change in their
  length due to strain.

5
Force sensors - Strain Gauges

• Definition of strain consider a length of
  metallic wire L, of conductivity??? and
  cross-sectional area A.
• The resistance of the wire is

Taking the log on both sides
6
Force sensors - Strain Gauges

• Taking the differential on both sides

Change in resistance is due to two terms Due to
change in conductivity Due to the deformation of
the conductor. For small deformations (linear
deformation), both terms on the right hand side
are linear functions of strain, ?. Bundling both
effects together (that is, the change in
conductivity and deformation) we can write
7
Force sensors - Strain Gauges

• For small deformations (linear deformation), both
  terms on the right hand side are linear functions
  of strain, ?.
• Bundling both effects together (that is, the
  change in conductivity and deformation) we can
  write

Ss is the sensitivity of the strain gauge Also
known as the gauge factor
8
Strain Gauge

• For any given strain gauge the gauge factor is a
  constant
• Ranges between 2 to 6 for most metallic strain
  gauges
• From 40-200 for semiconductor strain gauges.
• The strain gauge relation gives a simple linear
  relation between the change in resistance of the
  sensor and the strain applied to it.

9
Stress and Strain
10
Strain and Stress

• Given the conductor discussed above and applying
  a force along its axis, the stress is

? stress N/m2 E Youngs modulus of the
material (modulus of elasticity) N/m2 ?
dL/L strain
11
Strain and Stress

• Strain is a normalized linear deformation of the
  material
• Stress is a measure of elasticity of the material.

12
Strain gauges

• Strain gauges come in many forms and types.
• Any material, combination of materials or
  physical configuration that changes its
  resistance due to strain constitutes a strain
  gauge.
• Will restrict our discussion to two types that
  account for most of the strain gauges in use
  today
• wire (or metal) strain gauges - resistive
• semiconductor strain gauges.

13
metallic strain gauge

• In its simplest form
• A length of wire, held between two posts
• When a force is applied to them, will deform the
  wire causing a change in the wires resistance.
• This method was used in the past and is valid
• It is not very practical (construction,
  attachment to system, change in resistance is
  very small).
• Sometimes, multiple lengths of wire were used.

14
Wire strain gauge
15
Metallic strain gauge common form

• A more practical strain gauge - resistive
• Built out of a thin layer of conducting material
• Deposited on an insulating substrate (plastic,
  ceramic, etc.)
• Etched to form a long, meandering wire (figure)
• Constantan (60 copper, 40 nickel) is most
  common material
• negligible temperature coefficient of resistance
  (TCR see Table 3.1)).
• Other materials are commonly used (table)

16
The resistive strain gauge
17
Materials for resistive strain gauges
18
Metallic strain gauge common form

• Strain gauges may also be used to measure
  multiple axis strains by simply using more than
  one gauge or by producing them in standard
  configurations.
• Some of these are shown next.

19
Two-axis strain gauge
20
120 degree rosette
21
45 degree rosette
22
45 degree stacked rosette
23
membrane rosette
24
Semiconductor strain gauges

• Operate like resistive strain gauges
• Construction and properties are different.
• The gauge factor for semiconductors is much
  higher than for metals.
• The change in conductivity due to strain is much
  larger than in metals.
• Are typically smaller than metal types
• Often more sensitive to temperature variations
  (require temperature compensation).

25
Semiconductor strain gauges

• All semiconductor materials exhibit changes in
  resistance due to strain
• The most common material is silicon because of
  its inert properties and ease of production.
• The base material is doped, by diffusion of
  doping materials (usually boron or arsenide for p
  or n type) to obtain a base resistance as needed.
  
• The substrate provides the means of straining the
  silicon chip and connections are provided by
  deposition of metal at the ends of the device.

26
Semiconductor strain gauges

• Construction of a semiconductor strain gauge

27
Semiconductor strain gauges

• Other types of semiconductor strain gauges

28
Semiconductor strain gauges

• One of the important differences between
  conductor and semiconductor strain gauges is that
  semiconductor strain gauges are essentially
  nonlinear devices with typically a quadratic
  transfer function

Also PTC or NTC operation
29
PTC and NTC operation
30
Strain gauges - applications

• Strain gauge must be made to react to a force.
• The strain gauge is attached to the member in
  which strain is sensed, usually by bonding.
  Cannot be re-used!
• Special bonding agents exist for different
  applications and types of materials
• Usually supplied by the manufacturers of strain
  gauges or specialized producers.
• Strain gauges are often used for bending strain,
  twisting (torsional and shear strain) and
  longitudinal tensioning/deformation (axial
  strain) of structures (engine shafts, bridge
  loading, truck weighing and many many others)

31
Strain gauges - properties

• The properties of strain gauges vary by
  application
• Most metal gauges have a nominal resistance
  between 100 and 1000?, (lower and higher
  resistances are available)
• Gauge factor between 2-5
• Dimensions from less than 3x3 mm to lengths in
  excess of 150 mm (almost any size may be
  fabricated if necessary).
• Rosettes (multiple axis strain gauges) are
  available with 45, 90 and 120? axes as well as
  diaphragm and other specialized configurations.

32
Strain gauges - properties

• Typical sensitivities are 5m???
• Deformation is of the order of 2-3?m/m.
• Much higher strains can be measured with
  specialized gauges.
• Semiconductor strain gauges
• usually smaller than most resistive strain gauges
  
• can be made with higher resistances.
• their use is limited to low temperatures
• can be much less expensive than metal strain
  gauges.
• often part of another device

33
Strain gauges - errors

• Strain gauges are subject to a variety of errors.
  
• Due to temperatures - resistance, especially in
  semiconductors, is affected by temperature in the
  same way as by strain.
• In metal gauges, this is usually small (materials
  with low temperature coefficients of resistance).
  
• In semiconductors, temperature compensation is
  sometimes provided on board or a separate sensor
  may be used for this purpose.

34
Strain gauges - errors

• A third source of error is due to the strain
  itself, which, over time, tends, to permanently
  deform the gauge.
• can be eliminated by periodic re-calibration
• can be reduced by ensuring that the maximum
  deformation allowed is small and below the
  recommended for the device.

35
Strain gauges - errors

• Additional errors
• Due the bonding process
• Thinning of materials due to cycling.
• Most strain gauges are rated for
• given number of cycles (i.e. 106 or 107 cycles),
• maximum strain (3 is typical for conducting
  strain gauges, 1 for semiconductor strain
  gauges)
• temperature characteristics specified for use
  with a particular material (aluminum, stainless
  steel, carbon steel) for optimal performance when
  bonded
• Typical accuracies are of the order of 0.2-0.5.

36
Typical resistive strain gauges
37
Other Strain Gauges

• Other strain gauges - for specialized
  applications.
• Optical fiber strain gauges.
• The change in length of the fiber due to strain
  changes the phase of the light through the fiber.
  
• Measuring the light phase, either directly or in
  an interferrometric method can produce readings
  of minute strain that cannot be obtained in other
  strain gauges.
• The device and the electronics necessary is far
  more complicated than standard gauges.

38
Other Strain Gauges

• There are also liquid strain gauges which rely in
  the resistance of an electrolytic liquid in a
  flexible container which can be deformed.
• Another type of strain gauge that is used on a
  limited basis is the plastic strain gauge.
• These are made as ribbons or threads based on
  graphite or carbon in a resin as a substrate and
  used in a way similar to other strain gauges.
• Very high gauge factors (up to about 300), they
  are otherwise difficult to use and inaccurate as
  well as unstable mechanically, severely limiting
  their practical use.

39
Force and tactile sensors

• Forces can be measured in many ways
• The simplest - use a strain gauge
• Calibrate the output in units of force.
• Other methods include
• measuring acceleration of a mass (Fma),
• measuring the displacement of a spring under
  action of force (xkF, k is the spring constant),
  
• measuring the pressure produced by force and some
  variations of these basic methods.
• None of these is a direct measure of force
• most are more complicated than use of a strain
  gauge.

40
Force and tactile sensors

• The basic method is shown in Figure 6.9.
• One measures the tensile force by measuring the
  strain in the strain gauge.
• The sensor is usually provided with attachment
  holes
• may also be used in compressive mode by
  pre-stressing the strain gauge.
• This type of sensor is often used to measure
  forces in locations such as machine tools, engine
  mounts and the like.
• Often it is called a load cell, especially when
  large forces are measured.

41
Force sensor
42
Force sensor
43
Load cells
44
Tactile sensors

• Tactile sensors are force sensors but
• Definition of tactile action is broader, the
  sensors are also more diverse.
• One view is that tactile action as simply sensing
  the presence of force. Then
• A simple switch is a tactile sensor
• This approach is commonly used in keyboards
• Membrane or resistive pads are used
• The force is applied against the membrane or a
  silicon rubber layer.

45
Tactile sensors

• In many tactile sensing applications it is often
  important to sense a force distribution over a
  specified area (such as the hand of a robot).
• Either an array of force sensors or
• A distributed sensor may be used.
• These are usually made from piezoelectric films
  which respond with an electrical signal in
  response to deformation (passive sensors).
• An example is shown in Figure 6.11.

46
A tactile sensor
47
Tactile sensors

• Operation
• The polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film is
  sensitive to deformation.
• The lower film is driven with an ac signal
• It contracts and expands mechanically and
  periodically.
• When the upper film is deformed, its signal
  changes from normal and the amplitude and or
  phase of the output signal is now a measure of
  deformation (force).

48
Tactile sensors

• Another example is shown in Figure 6.12
• Used to sense body motion due to breathing.

49
Tactile sensors

• The simplest tactile sensors are made of
  conductive polymers or elastomers or with
  semiconductive polymers
• Called piezoresistive sensors or force sensitive
  resistive (FSR) sensors.
• In these devices, the resistance of the material
  is pressure dependent and is shown schematically
  in Figure 6.13.

50
FSR sensor
51
Tactile sensors

• A conducting foam (such as the foam used to ship
  semiconductors) and two electrodes.
• The resistance of FSR sensors is a nonlinear
  function of force (Figure 6.13)
• The change in resistance is high (large dynamic
  range)
• The sensor is quite immune to noise and easily
  interfaced with microprocessors.
• Either dc or ac sources may be used and the
  device may be as large or as small as possible.
• An array of sensors may be built by using one
  large electrode on one side of the film and
  multiple electrodes on the other side.

52
Accelerometers

• By virtue of Newtons second law (F ma) a
  sensor may be made to sense acceleration by
  simply measuring the force on a mass.
• At rest, acceleration is zero and the force on
  the mass is zero.
• At any acceleration a, the force on the mass is
  directly proportional given a fixed mass.
• This force may be sensed in any method of sensing
  force but, again, the strain gauge will be
  representative of direct force measurement.

53
Accelerometers

• Other methods of sensing acceleration.
• Magnetic methods and electrostatic (capacitive)
  methods are quite commonly used.
• The distance between the mass and a fixed
  surface, which depends on acceleration can be
  made into a capacitor. Capacitance increases (or
  decreases) with acceleration.
• A magnetic sensor can be used by measuring the
  field of a magnetic mass. The higher the
  acceleration, the closer (or farther) the magnet
  from a fixed surface and hence the larger or
  lower the magnetic field.
• The methods used in chapter 5 to sense position
  or proximity can now be used to sense
  acceleration.

54
Accelerometers - principles

• Methods of acceleration sensing start with the
  mechanical model of a mass ( Figure 6.14).
• The mass, moves under the influence of forces,
  has a restoring force (spring) and a damping
  force (which essentially prevents it from
  oscillating).

55
Accelerometers - principles

• Under these conditions, and assuming the mass can
  only move in one direction (along the horizontal
  axis), Newtons second law may be written as

Assumes that the mass has moved a distance x
under the influence of acceleration, k is the
restoring (spring) constant and b is the damping
coefficient. Given the mass m and the constants
k and b, a measurement of x gives an indication
of the acceleration a.
56
Accelerometers - principles

• Therefore, for a useful acceleration sensor
  (often called accelerometer) it is sufficient to
  provide a component which can move relative to
  the sensors housing and a means of sensing this
  movement.
• A displacement sensor (position, proximity, etc.)
  can be used to provide an appropriate output
  proportional to acceleration.

57
Accelerometers - Capacitive

• One plate of a small capacitor is fixed and
  connected physically to the body of the sensor.
• A second plate serves as the inertial mass of the
  sensor is free to move and connected to a
  restoring spring.
• Three basic configurations are shown in Figure
  6.15.
• The restoring force is provided by springs
  (Figure 6.15a,c) or by a cantilevers fixed end
  (Figure 6.15b).

58
Capacitive accelerometers
59
Accelerometers - Capacitive

• In Figure 6.15a and 6.15b, the distance between
  the plates changes with acceleration.
• In Figure 6.15c, the effective area of the plates
  changes while the distance between the plates
  stays constant.
• In either case, acceleration either increases the
  capacitance or decreases it, depending on the
  direction of motion.
• In a practical accelerator, the plates must be
  prevented from touching by stoppers
• Some kind of damping mechanism must be added to
  prevent the springs or the beam from oscillating

60
Capacitive accelerometers - practical
considerations

• A more practical device

61
Capacitive accelerometers - practical
considerations

• Cantilever beam
• End of travel stops
• Capacitance proportional to vertical acceleration
  
• Changes in capacitance are very small
• Indirect methods such as using the capacitor in
  an LC oscillator are used.
• The frequency of oscillation is a direct measure
  of acceleration.
• Can be produced as semiconductor devices by
  etching both the mass, fixed plate and springs
  directly into silicon.

62
Capacitive accelerometers - practical
considerations

• Second structure a bridge structure
• The mass moves between two plates and forms an
  upper and lower capacitor.
• A differential mode is obtained since at rest the
  two capacitors are the same.

63
Strain gauge accelerometers

• The mass is suspended on a cantilever beam
• Strain gauge senses the bending of the beam

64
Variable inductance accelerometers

• A rod connected and moving with the mass links to
  a coil. The inductance of the coil is
  proportional to the position of the mass
• An LVDT may be used

65
Hall element magnetic accelerometers

• Acceleration changes distance to hall element
• Hall element output is calibrated as acceleration
• The magnet may be on the hall element side
  (biased hall element)

66
Other types of accelerometers

• Many other types of accelerometers
• All employ a moving mass in one form or another.
• Example the heated gas accelerometer
• Gas in cavity is heated to an equilibrium temp.
• Two (or more) thermocouples are provided
  equidistant from the heater.
• Under rest conditions, the two thermocouples are
  at the same temperature. Their reading (one
  thermocouples is the sense thermocouple, the
  second the reference thermocouple) is zero.

67
Other types of accelerometers

• Under acceleration occurs, the gas shifts to the
  direction opposite the motion (the gas is the
  inertial mass) causing a temperature gradient
  which is calibrated in terms of acceleration.

68
Other types of accelerometers

• Other accelerometers use optical means
• Example activating a variable shutter by means
  of the moving mass
• Optical fiber accelerometers use an optical fiber
  position sensor,
• Vibrating reeds whose vibration rate changes with
  acceleration
• Many more.

69
Accelerometers - notes

• Multiple axis accelerometers can be built by
  essentially using single axis accelerometers with
  axes perpendicular to each other.
• These can be fabricated as two or three axes
  accelerometer or two or three single axis
  accelerometers may be attached appropriately.
• Proper damping must be provided to avoid
  oscillations of the mass while still keeping
  reasonable response times.
• The uses of accelerometers are vast and include
  air bag deploying sensors, door unlocking,
  weapons guidance systems, vibration and shock
  measurement, satellites, intrusion alarms (by
  detecting motion), and control and other similar
  applications.

70
Accelerometers - notes

• Sensitivity from a few mg and up
• Noise and errors vibrations, temperature
  variations, deterioration of the return spring

71
Velocity sensing

• Velocity sensing is more complicated than
  acceleration sensing.
• One can always measure something proportional to
  velocity. For example
• We may infer the velocity of a car from the
  rotation of the wheels
• Or the transmission shaft ( a common method of
  velocity measurement in cars)
• Or count the number of rotation of a shaft per
  unit time in an electric motor.

72
Velocity sensing

• A free-standing sensor that measures velocity
  directly is much more difficult to produce.
• One approach that may be used is the induction of
  emf in a coil due to a magnet.
• This requires that the coil be stationary
• If the velocity is constant (no acceleration) the
  magnet cannot move relative to the coil.
• For changing velocity (when acceleration is not
  zero), the principle in Figure 6.21 may be
  useful.

73
Velocity sensing
74
Velocity sensing

• The emf induced in the coils is governed by
  Faradays law

The time derivative indicates that the magnet
must be moving to produce a nonzero change in
flux. The most common approach to velocity
sensing is to use an accelerometer and integrate
its output using an integrating amplifier
75
Velocity sensing

• constant velocity cannot be sensed (zero
  acceleration)
• Relative velocity of objects is easily measured
• We shall see fluid velocity sensors
• Also doppler effect sensors, time of flight
  devices - etc,

76
Pressure sensors - introduction

• Sensing of pressure is only second in importance
  to sensing of strain in mechanical systems
• These sensors are used either in their own right,
  (to measure pressure), or to sense secondary
  quantities such as force, power, temperature and
  the like.
• One of the reasons for their prominence is that
  in sensing gases and fluids, force is not an
  option only pressure can be measured and
  related to properties of these substances.

77
Pressure sensors - introduction

• Another reason for their widespread use and of
  exposure of most people to them is their use in
  cars, atmospheric weather prediction, heating and
  other consumer oriented devices.
• The barometer hanging on many a wall and the
  use of atmospheric pressure as indication of
  weather conditions has helped popularize the
  concept of pressure and pressure sensing

78
Pressure sensors - Units

• The basic SI unit of pressure is the pascal
• 1 pascal Pa 1 newton per square meter N/m2
• The pascal is an exceedingly small unit
• kPa 103 Pa
• Mpa 106 Pa.
• Other often units are
• bar 1 bar 0.1 Mpa
• torr 1 torr 133Pa.
• millibar (1.333 torr100Pa)
• microbar (1 ?bar 0.1 Pa)

79
Pressure sensors - Units

• In common use - the atmosphere defined as
• the pressure exerted by a 1 meter column of
  water at 4?C on one square centimeter.
• 1 atm 0.101 Mpa 760 torr
• The use of the atmosphere indicates a totally
  parallel system of pressure based either on a
  column of water or a column of mercury.
• The torr (named after Torricelli) is defined as
  the pressure exerted by a 1mm of mercury (at 0?C
  and normal atmospheric pressure)

80
Pressure sensors - Units

• In the US the common (non-metric) unit of
  pressure is the psi (pounds per square inch)
• 1 psi 6.89 kPa 0.0703 atm.
• Vacuum is often used, sometimes as a separate
  quantity.
• Vacuum means lack of pressure,
• Understood as indicating pressure below ambient.
• One talks about so many psi of vacuum
• This simply refers to so many psi below ambient
  pressure.

81
System of units for pressurs
82
Pressure sensing

• Pressure is force per unit area
• Sensing it follows the same principle as the
  sensing of force
• Measuring the displacement of an appropriate
  member of the sensor in response to pressure.
• The range of methods is quite large and includes
  thermal, optical as well as magnetic and
  electrical principles.
• Earliest sensors were purely mechanical

83
Mechanical pressure sensors

• Mechanical pressure sensors.
• Direct transduction from pressure to mechanical
  displacement
• These devices are actuators that react to
  pressure
• Are as common today as ever.
• Some mechanical devices have been combined with
  other sensors to provide electrical output
• Others are still being used in their original
  form.
• The most common of these is the Bourdon tube.

84
The Bourdon Tube
85
Mechanical pressure sensors

• Has been used for over a century in pressure
  gauges
• The dial indicator is connected directly to the
  tube.
• Still the most common pressure gauge used today
• does not need additional components
• simple
• inexpensive.
• Typically used for gases but it can also be used
  for sensing fluid pressure.
• Tire gauges, fuel gauges, etc.

86
Bellows and diaphragms

• Principle expansion of a diaphragm or a bellows
  under the influence of pressure.
• The motion produces may be used to directly drive
  an indicator or
• May be sensed by a displacement sensor (LVDT,
  magnetic, capacitive etc.)
• A simple diaphragm pressure sensor used in wall
  barometers is shown in Figure 6.24.

87
Diaphragm pressure sensor
88
Bellows and diaphragms

• One side is held fixed (in this case by the small
  screw which also serves to adjust, or calibrate
  it)
• The other moves in response to pressure.
• The device is hermetically sealed at a given
  pressure
• Any pressure below the internal pressure will
  force the diaphragm to expand (like a baloon)
• Any higher pressure will force it to contract.
• Very simple and trivially inexpensive, but
• Possibility of leakage
• Dependence on temperature.

89
Bellows and diaphragms

• A bellows (Figure 6.25) is a similar device
• Can be used for direct reading or to activate
  another sensor.
• The bellows, in various forms is also being used
  as an actuator.
• One of its common uses is in vacuum motors used
  in vehicles to activate valves and to move slats
  and doors, particularly in heating and air
  conditioning systems.

90
Membranes and plates

• The most common devices used for pressure sensing
  are the thin plate and the diaphragm or membrane.
  
• Membrane a thin plate with negligible thickness
• Thin plate a thick membrane
• Their behavior and response to pressure is
  different. In relation to Figure 6.26, the
  deflection of the center of a membrane (maximum
  deflection) which is under radial tension S and
  the stress in the diaphragm are given as

91
Membrane and thin plate
92
Membranes and thin plates

• In relation previous figure, the deflection of
  the center of a membrane (maximum deflection)
  which is under radial tension S, and the stress
  in the diaphragm are given as

P is the applied pressure difference between the
top and bottom of the membrane r its radius t
its thickness
93
Membranes and thin plates

• If the thickness t is not negligible, the
  behavior is different and given as

E is the Youngs modulus V is the Poissons
ratio The displacement is linear with pressure
hence their widespread use for pressure sensing.
94
Pressure sensors

• Pressure sensors come in four basic types
• Absolute pressure sensors (PSIA) pressure sensed
  relative to absolute vacuum.
• Differential pressure sensors (PSID) the
  difference between two pressures on two ports of
  the sensor is sensed.
• Gage pressure sensors (PSIG) the pressure
  relative to ambient pressure is sensed. (Most
  common)
• Sealed gage pressure sensor (PSIS) the pressure
  relative to a sealed pressure chamber (usually 1
  atm at sea level or 14.7 psi) is sensed.

95
Piezoresistive pressure sensors

• Piezoresistor is a semiconductor strain gauge
• Most modern pressure sensors use it rather than
  the conductor type strain gauge.
• Resistive (metal) strain gauges are used only at
  higher temperature or for specialized
  applications
• May be fabricated of silicon
• simplifies construction
• allows on board temperature compensation,
  amplifiers and conditioning circuitry.

96
Piezoresistive pressure sensors

• Basic structure
• two gauges are parallel to one dimension of the
  diaphragm
• The two gauges can be in other directions

97
Piezoresistive pressure sensors

• The change in resistance of the two piezoresistos
  is

? is an average sensitivity (gauge) coefficient
and ?x and ?y are the stresses in the transverse
directions
98
Piezoresistive pressure sensors

• Piezoresistors and the diaphragm are fabricated
  of silicon.
• A vent is provided, making this a gage sensor.
• If the cavity under the diaphragm is hermetically
  closed and the pressure in it is P0, the sensor
  becomes a sealed gage pressure sensor sensing the
  pressure P-P0.
• A differential sensor is produced by placing the
  diaphragm between two chambers, each vented
  through a port (figure).

99
Differential pressure sensor
100
Piezoresistive pressure sensors

• A different approach is to use a single strain
  gauge
• A current passing through the strain gauge
• Pressure applied perpendicular to the current.
• The voltage across the element is measured as an
  indication of the stress and therefore pressure.

101
Construction

• Many variations
• Body of sensor is particularly important
• Silicon, steel, stainless steel and titanium are
  most commonly used
• Ports are made with various fittings
• The contact material is specified (gas, fluid,
  corrosivity, etc.)

102
Various pressure sensors
103
Miniature pressure sensors
104
Pitran pressure sensors (absolute)
105
150 psi differential pressure sensor
106
100 psi absolute pressure sensor (TO5 can)
107
15 and 30 psi differential pressure sensors
108
Capacitive pressure sensors

• The deflection of the diaphragm constitutes a
  capacitor in which the distance between the
  plates is pressure sensitive.
• The basic structure shown in Figure 6.16 may be
  used or a similar configuration devised.
• These sensors are very simple and are
  particularly useful for sensing of very low
  pressure.
• At low pressure, the deflection of the diaphragm
  may be insufficient to cause large strain but can
  be relatively large in terms of capacitance.

109
Capacitive pressure sensors

• The capacitance may be part of an oscillator,
• The change in its frequency may be quite large
  making for a very sensitive sensor.
• Other advantages
• less temperature dependent
• stops on motion of the plate may be incorporated,
  - not sensitive to overpressure.
• Overpressures of 2-3 orders of magnitude larger
  than rated pressure may be easily tolerated
  without ill effects.
• The sensors are linear for small displacement but
  at larger pressures the diaphragm tends to bow
  causing nonlinear output

110
Magnetic pressure sensors

• A number of methods are used
• In large deflection sensors an inductive position
  sensor may be used or an LVDT attached to the
  diaphragm.
• For low pressures, variable reluctance pressure
  sensor is more practical.
• The diaphragm is made of a ferromagnetic material
  and is part of the magnetic circuit shown in
  Figure 6.32.

111
Variable reluctance pressure sensor
112
Magnetic pressure sensors

• The reluctance is directly proportional to the
  length of the air gap between the diaphragm and
  the E-core.
• Gap changes with pressure and the inductance of
  the two coils changes and sensed directly.
• A very small deflection can cause a very large
  change in inductance of the circuit making this a
  very sensitive device.
• Magnetic sensors are almost devoid of temperature
  sensitivity allowing these sensors to operate at
  elevated temperatures.

113
Other pressure sensors

• Optoelectronic pressure sensors - Fabri-Perot
  optical resonator to measure small displacements.
  
• light reflected from a resonant optical cavity is
  measured by a photodiode to produce a measure of
  pressure sensed.
• A very old method of sensing low pressures (often
  called vacuum sensors) is the Pirani gauge.
• based on measuring the heat loss from gases which
  is dependent on pressure. The temperature is
  sensed and correlated to pressure, usually in an
  absolute pressure sensor arrangement.

114
Pressure sensors - properties

• Semiconductor based sensors can only operate at
  low temperatures (?50 to 150?C).
• Temperature dependent errors can be high unless
  properly compensated (externally or internally).
• The range of sensors can exceed 50,000 psi and
  can be as small as a fraction of psi.
• Impedance is anywhere between a few hundred Ohms
  to about 100 k?, depending on device.
• Linearity is between 0.1 to 2 typically

115
Pressure sensors - properties

• Other speciffications include
• Maximum pressure, burst pressure and proof
  pressure (overpressure)
• electrical output - either direct (no internal
  circuitry) or after conditioning and
  amplification.
• Digital outputs are also available.
• Materials used (silicon, stainless steel, etc.)
  and compatibility with gases and liquids are
  specified
• port sizes and shapes, connectors, venting ports
• cycling of the pressure sensors is also specified
  
• hysteresis (usually below 0.1 of full scale)
• repeatability (typically less than 0.1 of full
  scale).

116
Gyroscopes

• Gyroscopes come to mind usually as stabilizing
  devices in aircraft and spacecraft in such
  applications as automatic pilots.
• Are much more than that and much more common than
  one can imagine.
• The gyroscope is a navigational tool. Its purpose
  is to keep the direction of a device or vehicle.
• Used in all satellites, in smart weapons and in
  all other applications that require attitude and
  position stabilization.

117
Gyroscopes

• Eventually will find their ways into consumer
  products such as cars.
• They have already found their ways into toys.
• The basic principle involved is the principle of
  conservation of angular momentum
• In any system of bodies or particles, the total
  angular momentum relative to any point in space
  is constant, provided no external forces act on
  the system

118
Mechanical Gyroscopes

• Best known of the existing gyros and the easiest
  to understand.
• Consists of a rotating mass (heavy wheel) on an
  axis in a frame - provides the angular momentum
• If one tries to change the direction of the axis,
  by applying a torque to it, a torque is developed
  in directions perpendicular to the axis of
  rotation
• This forces a precession motion.
• This precession is the output of the gyroscope
  and is proportional to the torque applied to its
  frame.

119
Mechanical (rotor) gyroscope
120
Mechanical Gyroscopes

• A torque is applied to the frame of the gyro
  around the input axis,
• The output axis will rotate as shown in a motion
  called precession.
• This precession now becomes a measure of the
  applied torque and can be used as an output to,
  for example, correct the direction of an airplane
  or the position of a satellite antenna.
• Application of torque in the opposite direction
  reverses the direction of precession.

121
Mechanical Gyroscopes

• The relation between applied torque and the
  angular velocity of precession is

T is the applied torque ? the angular velocity
I the inertia of the rotating mass ? is the
angular velocity of precession. I? is the
angular momentum ? is a measure of the torque
applied to the frame of the device
122
Mechanical Gyroscopes

• Two or three axes gyroscope are built by
  duplicating this structure with rotation axes
  perpendicular to each other.
• This type of gyroscope has been used for many
  decades in aircraft but
• it is a fairly large, heavy and complex
• not easily adapted to small systems.
• It also has other problems, associated with the
  spinning mass (bearings, friction, balancing,
  etc.)
• Other devices have been developed

123
Coriolis force gyroscopes

• Coriolis acceleration has been used to devise
  much smaller and more cost effective gyroscopic
  sensors.
• Built in silicon by standard etching methods
• The rotating mass is replaced by a vibrating body
  The coriolis acceleration is used for sensing.
• The idea is based on the fact that if a body
  moves linearly in a rotating frame of reference,
  an acceleration appears at right angles to both
  motions as shown in Figure 6.34.

124
Coriolis acceleration
125
Coriolis force gyroscopes

• Linear motion is supplied by the vibration of a
  mass, usually a harmonic motion.
• Under normal conditions, the coriolis
  acceleration is zero and the force associated
  with it is zero
• If the sensor is rotated in the plane
  perpendicular to the linear vibration, an
  acceleration is obtained, proportional to the
  angular velocity ?.
• An example of a coriolis based gyroscope is shown
  next

126
Coriolis based gyroscope
127
Coriolis force gyroscopes

• Two gimbals - one is driven into oscillations by
  a torque on one of the gimbals (right hand side).
• Can be done mechanically by electromagnetic or
  electrostatic actuators
• The device is usually made in silicon-
  electrostatic forces are sufficient
• This torque sets the gyro element (an inertial
  mass) into oscillation at the drive frequency.
• If now an angular velocity exists, the flexural
  element (central square piece) will oscillate at
  the same frequency as the input axis.
• This motion is sensed by two pairs of electrodes
  making up a capacitor one on the flexural
  plate, one on the outer body.
• The differential capacitance is then a measure of
  the angular velocity since the amplitude is
  proportional to the angular velocity (the
  frequency is fixed).
• Usually the vibration is resonant to maximize
  efficiency.

128
Optical Gyroscopes

• One of the more exciting developments in
  gyroscopes
• Has no moving members.
• Used extensively for guidance and control
• Based on the Segnac effect.
• The Segnac effect is based on propagation of
  light in optical fibers and can be explained
  using Figure 6.36.

129
The Sagnac effect
130
Sagnac effect

• The ring is at rest and two laser beams travel
  the length of the ring, in opposite directions.
• The time it takes either beam to travel the
  length of the ring is ?t2?R/nc where n is the
  index of refraction of the optical fiber and c is
  the speed of light in the fiber.
• Suppose that the ring rotates clockwise at an
  angular velocity ?.
• The CW beam will travel a distance 2?R ??R?t
  and the CCW beam a distance 2?R ??R?t.

131
Sagnac effect

• The difference between the two paths is

Linear relation between ? (the stimulus in this
case) and the change in length traveled. The
challenge is to measure this change in length.
This can be done in a number of ways. One method
is to build an optical resonator.
132
Resonant fiber optic gyroscope

• A resonator is any device which has a dimension
  equal to multiple half wavelengths of the wave.
• A ring is built as follows

133
Resonant fiber optic ring resonator

• Light is coupled through the light coupler (beam
  splitter).
• At resonance, which depends on the circumference
  of the ring, maximum power is coupled into the
  ring and minimum power is available at the
  detector.
• The incoming beam frequency is tuned to do just
  that.
• If the ring rotates at an angular velocity ?, the
  light beams in the ring change in frequency
  (wavelength) to compensate for the change in
  apparent length of the ring.

134
Resonant fiber optic ring resonator

• The relation between frequency, wavelength and
  length is

The light wavelength increases in one direction
and decreases in the other. The net effect is
that the two beams generate a frequency
difference (A is area of ring)
f is the output - linearly proportional to W
135
Coil optical fiber gyroscope

• The resonator is replaced by a coiled optical
  fiber
• Fed from a polarized light source through a beam
  splitter to ensure equal intensity and phase (the
  phase modulator adjusts for any variations in
  phase between the two beams).

136
Coil optical fiber gyroscope

• The beams propagate in opposite directions
• When returning to the detector, they are at the
  same phase in the absence of rotation.
• If rotation exists, the beams will induce a phase
  difference at the detector which is dependent of
  the angular frequency ?.

137
Coil optical fiber gyroscope

• Optical gyroscopes are not cheap
• But they are orders of magnitude cheaper than the
  spinning mass gyroscope and much smaller and
  lighter.
• Have a very large dynamic range (as high as
  10000) and so they can be used for sensing
  angular frequency over a large span.
• Optical fiber gyroscopes are immune to
  electromagnetic fields as well as to radiation
  and hence can be used in very hostile
  environments including space