Chapter 3 Objective and Subjective Factors Shaping Tourism

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Chapter 3 Objective and Subjective Factors
Shaping Tourism

• Learning Objectives
• Explain the objective factors
• Explain the effects of cultural background on
  travel decisions.
• Explain the effects of time income on travel
  decisions.
• Explain the effects of socio-economic background
  on travel decisions.
• Explain the effects of psychographic background
  on travel decisions.
• Explain the subjective factorsMotivations

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Overview

• The objective factors
• The effects of TIME on travel
• The effects of INCOME on travel
• Other SOCIOECONOMIC variables effects on travel
• The effects of CULTURE on travel
• The effect of PERSONALITY on travel
• Other forces
• Why people travel? (reasons)
• Motivation
• Pull motivation Push motivation
• Motivation theories and implications
• Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
• The travel career ladder (TCL Pearce 1988, 1991,
  1993)
• Iso-Aholas (1982) optimal arousal theory
• Plogs (1974) allocentric-psychocentric theory.

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Barriers to Travel
1. Cost 2. Lack of time 3. Health
limitations 4. Family stage 5. Fear and safety
6. Lack of interest
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The effects of TIME on travel

• Time can be spent in one of three ways
• Work
• Maintenance activities that are necessary to
  sustain and maintain life, such as eating,
  sleeping, maintaining the house.
• Leisure the time remaining after work and
  maintenance activities have been completed.

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Vacation time as of July 2003
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The effects of TIME on travel

• Chinas situation?
• To meet the growing demand for leisure travel
  among Chinas own citizens and to encourage
  personal consumption for economic growth, the
  central government has issued a number of
  policies to promote tourism.
• In 1992, weeklong holidays were first introduced
• In 1995, a five-day work week was introduced
• Starting in 1999, three weeklong holidays were
  established around May 1(May Day/Labor Day),
  October 1 (National Day), and the lunar Spring
  Festival of Chinese New Year.
• Starting in 2008, only two weeklong holidays were
  remained around October 1 (National Day), and the
  lunar Spring Festival of Chinese New Year.

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The effects of INCOME on travel
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The effects of INCOME on travel

• Personal Income
• An individual's total annual gross earnings
  coming from wages, business enterprises and
  various investments.
• Income tax
• A tax levied on net personal or business income.
• A tax on any money earned during a fiscal year,
  usually filed on a yearly basis.
• Disposable Income
• The amount of income left after paying taxes.
• Discretionary Income
• The amount of an individual's income that is left
  for spending after the essentials have been taken
  care of.
• Individual income that is not allocated for
  necessary items such as food and shelter.
• Dual Income, No Kids - DINKS
• A household in which there are two incomes and no
  children.
• DINKS are often the target of marketing efforts
  for luxury items such as expensive cars and
  vacations.

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Personal income in the United States
Personal income for the population age 25 or
older.
Source http//www.answers.com/topic/personal-inco
me-in-the-united-states
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Income in the United States
SOURCE US Census Bureau, 2006 http//www.answers
.com/topic/personal-income-in-the-united-states
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Other SOCIOECONOMIC variables effects

• Age
• Generational influence
• Sex
• Education
• Life cycle stages

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Class model regarding the social structure of the
United States.
This particular model was introduced by William
Thompson and Joseph Hickey in Society in Focus in
2005.
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The effects of CULTURE on travel

• Culture can be defined as a set of beliefs,
  values, attitudes, habits, and forms of behavior
  that are shared by a society and are transmitted
  from generation to generation.

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The effects of culture on travel

• Hofstede found the value patterns vary along
  four main dimensions
• Power Distance (social hierarchy, formality)
• Individualism vs Collectivism
• (individual/group achievements)
• The closeness of the relationship between one
  person and other persons.
• Femininity vs Masculinity (social roles)
• Uncertainty Avoidance (ambiguity)
• How to deal with the uncertainty of future
• The role of opinion leaders is strong and safety
  is important in high scoring countries.

Hofstede (1980, 2001)
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Evidence for Different Work Values across
Cultures
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Country Cluster and their Value Systems
Source Jackofsky, Slocum McQuaid (1988).
Cultural Values and the CEO Alluring
Companions?, The Academy of Management
Executive, Vol 11(1), 39-49 Original Source
Hofstede, G. (1980a). Cultures Consequences
International Differences in Work-Related Values,
Beverly Hills, California Sage Publications
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The effect of PERSONALITY on travel

• Introverts (introverted)
• look into themselves and tend to be shy and
  reserved.
• Extroverts (extroverted)
• Are other-oriented, looking outside the self, and
  tending to be objective rather than subjective in
  outlook.
• People from the East prefer dependable types of
  travel while people from the West prefer more
  venturesome types of travel

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Other External Factors Impacting Tourism

• Political stability
• Energy prices rising directly affects consumer
  disposable income
• Exchange rate
• The Canadian dollar is expected to stay on par
  with current levels.
• Outbound Canadian travel will remain strong.
• Public health issue SARS,H1N1 flu

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Tourism Motivations

• Robert W. McIntosh, Charles R. Goeldner, JR Brent
  Ritchie (1995) proposed four basic tourism
  motivations in their book named Tourism
  Principles, Practices and Philosophies
• Physical
• Cultural
• Interpersonal
• Status and prestige

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Motivation

• Motivation the drive to satisfy needs and wants,
  both physiological and psychological through the
  purchase and use of products and services.
• Push motivations internal, socio-psychological
  motivations that predispose the individual to
  travel. (whether to go?)
• Pull motivation external motivations that
  attract the individual to a specific destination
  once the decision to travel has been made.
• (where to go?)

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Push and Pull factors

• People travel because they are pushed by
  physiological, psychological, intangible and
  internal factors and people travel also because
  they are pulled by the unique things a
  destination features, such as image, recreation
  facilities, education, appreciating scenery,
  safety, gambling and foods.

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Motivational Push Items
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Motivational pull items
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Motivation theories

• The present research concentrates on the
  development, modification, and potential
  enhancement of one of the existing theories of
  tourist motivation.
• Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
• The travel career ladder (TCL Pearce 1988, 1991,
  1993)
• Iso-Aholas (1982) optimal arousal theory
• Plogs (1974) allocentric-psychocentric theory.

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Maslows Theory

• Sought to explain why people are driven by
  particular needs at particular times
• Human needs are arranged in a hierarchy
• When the important need is satisfied, it stops
  being a motivator

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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
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Maslows hierarchy of needs

• According to Maslow there are five needs forming
  a hierarchy. Maslows needs and their order of
  priority are
• Physiological -- food, water, shelter,
  reproduction
• Safety -- stability, security, structure
• Love -- affiliation, affection, sense of
  belonging
• Esteem -- success, self worth, achievement
• Self-actualization -- self fulfillment,
  personal growth

Maslows suggested that a person will be
motivated to fulfill a higher level need only if
lower needs have already been fulfilled.
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The travel career ladder

• Pearces Travel Career Ladder is based on a
  hierarchy of travel motives and builds on
  Maslows model (in Pearce et al., 1998).
• Each person has a travel career just as they
  have a work career.
• People start their travel careers at different
  levels during their travel careers.
• Broadly, the TCL theory proposed that people
  progress upward through the levels of motivation
  when accumulating travel experiences.
• Peoples travel decisions and decision-making
  processes are not static they change over a
  persons lifetime based on their travel
  experiences.

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The travel needs ladder
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Optimal Arousal Theory

• Optimal Arousal Theory, also named two
  dimensional theory of tourist motivation, is
  developed by S. E. Iso-Aholas.
• The basic principle behind the optimal arousal
  theory is that a person seeks out a level of
  stimulation that is best for him/her as an
  individual. If a persons life is too quiet, the
  person may seek out stimulation through activity.
  If too much is happening in a persons world,
  then the person seeks to cut off stimulation and
  find a quieter environment.
• Tourism provides an excellent means of
  accommodating a persons need for an optimal
  level of stimulation. Someone whose day-to-day
  life is overbearing may choose to visit a remote,
  peaceful setting to counter the pressures of home
  and work. Someone whose work and life are boring
  may want a vacation that supplies adventure and
  excitement.

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Iso-Aholas theory of seeking and escaping
Source Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1984). Social
psychological foundations of leisure and
resultant implications for leisure counseling. In
Leisure counseling concepts and applications, E.
T. Dowd, ed., pp. 97-125. Springfield, IL
Charles C. Thomas.
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Plogs allocentric-psychocentric theory

• Psychocentric-allocentric model
• This work was historically important in
  providing one organizing theory of travel
  motivation.
• It offers only a single trait a static and
  extrinsic account of tourist motivation
• It is not of universal application
• It is limited by its formulation in the tourism
  context of the early 1970s

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Plogs distribution of psychological
segments-five types personality
Plog (1973) used a psychometric scale to
categories tourists into allocentric, mid-centric
and psychocentric, depending on individual's
relative focus on their own culture and the one
they are visiting. Psychocentrics tourists like
good facilities nice swimming pools
well-organized trip pub lunches.
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Plogs distribution of psychological segments
The personality scale helps to explain why
destinations rise and fall in popularity. In
particular, tourists personality characteristics
determine their travel patterns and preferences.
Resource Stanley Plog, Why destination areas
rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly Jun 2001
42, 3 ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13
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Psychographic positions of destinations (1972)
Psychocentric Conservative in travel pattern,
prefer safe destinations. Allocentric
Adventurous and discover , prefer new
destinations.
Resource Stanley Plog, Why destination areas
rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly Jun 2001
42, 3 ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13
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Psychographic positions of destinations (2001)
Resource Stanley Plog, Why destination areas
rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly Jun 2001
42, 3 ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13