Title: Energy%20concept%20for%20future%20oil%20refineries%20with%20an%20emphasis%20on%20separation%20processes
1Energy concept for future oil refineries with an
emphasis on separation processes
- Antonio Carlos Brandão de Araújo
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Norwegian University of Science and Tecnology
(NTNU) - Trondheim, Norway
- January 2007
2About this presentation
- Motivation
- Focus on environmental aspects in oil refining is
not enough (Szklo 2007, DOE 2000). - Energy-efficient processes in oil refining are
paramount. - Need for research in this field is a must.
- Focus
- Whats up on the future of energy consumption.
- Opportunities Ill give directions.
- Looking at the big picture Not restricted to
separation processes. - Goal
- Attempting to show what one can expect in terms
of more energy-efficient refineries.
3About this presentation
Energy concept Energy efficiency. Keep it
simple!
Directions will be given but problems wontt be
solved here!
Catalytic cracking separation unit
Energy concept for future refineries.
Future Next 20 years. Nothing futuristic! No
revolution!
- Directions will be given Well, it cannot be
different since there are lots of alternatives to
consider and details cannot be given here!
4Outline
- A vision for the future
- A simple guide to oil refining
- Energetic issues in an oil refinery
- Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve
energy consumption. - Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
- Fluid catalytic cracking
- Catalytic hydrotreating
- Catalytic reforming
- Alkylation
- Separation processes
- Recap and future directions
- References
5A vision for the future
- According to the APIs Technology Vision 2020 A
Technology Vision for the U.S. Petroleum Refining
Industry API 2000 report, - The petroleum industry of the future will be
environmentally sound, energy-efficient, safe and
simpler to operate. It will be completely
automated, operate with minimal inventory, and
use processes that are fundamentally
well-understood. Over the long term, it will be
sustainable, viable, and profitable, with
complete synergy between refineries and product
consumers. - To improve energy and process efficiency, the
industry will strive to use cost-effective
technology with lower energy-intensity.
Refineries will integrate state-of-the-art
technology (e.g., separations, catalysts, sensors
and controls, biotechnology) to leapfrog current
refinery practice and bring efficiency to new
levels.
6Outline
- A vision for the future
- A simple guide to oil refining
- Energetic issues in an oil refinery
- Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve
energy consumption. - Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
- Fluid catalytic cracking
- Catalytic hydrotreating
- Catalytic reforming
- Alkylation
- Separation processes
- Recap and future directions
- References
7A simple guide to oil refining
- According to the North American Industry
Classification System (NAICS) DOE 2006,
petroleum refineries are defined as - Establishments primarily engaged in refining
crude petroleum into refined petroleum.
Picture of the oil refinery of the future, if the
oil consumption maintains its crazy
growth Actually, this is a 1876 oil refinery in
California.
8A simple guide to oil refining Exxon 2005
9A simple guide to oil refining
- In short
- Everything is upgraded to valuable products More
fuel! - Over 43 of production is gasoline.
- Almost 80 is converted to fuel.
- It is a huge process facility!!!
- Lots of reactions and separations to add value to
the product. - Many opportunities for energy savings.
10Outline
- A vision for the future
- A simple guide to oil refining
- Energetic issues in an oil refinery
- Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve
energy consumption. - Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
- Fluid catalytic cracking
- Catalytic hydrotreating
- Catalytic reforming
- Alkylation
- Separation processes
- Recap and future directions
- References
11Energetic issues in an oil refinery (DOE 2000,
Pellegrino 2005)
- Refinery gas petroleum coke other oil-based
by-products accounts for 65 of the energy
sources in an oil refinery. - 38 of the energy sources in an oil refinery are
used to produce non-fuel products like lubricant
oils, wax, asphalt, and petrochemical feedstocks. - Oil refineries generate large amounts of
electricity on-site. In the U.S., over 40 (1994)
of electricity in refineries are on-site
generated. - The cost of energy for heat and power accounts
for 40 of the operating costs in the refinery!!!
12Energetic issues in an oil refinery DOE 1998
- According to the NAICS, the petroleum refineries
consumed 3.1 quadrillion Btu in 2002, almost 20
of the fuel energy consumed by the U.S.. - From the Table 35 is consumed in two
distillation processes. - As expected, hydrotreating is also very high, 19
alone. - Units in circles are prone to be optimized
energetically as they represent approx. 80 of
the energy consumed by the refining process. - We will focus on these units.
13Energetic issues in an oil refinery Worrell 2005
- Hydrogen generation is yet another high energy
consumption process. - Large amounts of energy are consumed as fuel,
while the rest is basically steam.
14Energetic issues in an oil refinery
15Energetic issues in an oil refinery DOE 2000
- Future characteristics of oil refineries in terms
of energy use - Energy use is optimized throughout the refinery
complex. - Energy efficiency and process controls are
integrated. - Fouling of heat exchangers is essentially
eliminated. - Innovative heat exchangers are in place (all
helical, vertical, no baffles) - Use of cogeneration in refineries is optimized,
and refineries are power producers. - Use of very energy-intensive processes (e.g.,
distillation, furnaces) is minimized. - Source of heat loss (e.g., in pipes) are easily
identified through monitoring. - How?
- Identify entirely new technology.
- Upgrade existing inefficient technology.
16Energetic issues in an oil refinery DOE 2000
- Replacing the conventional energy-intensive
separation processes has a tremendous impact on
energy consumption. - Waste recovery in the short term.
- Fouling mitigation and new refining processes in
the mid and long terms. - Membrane is the first step.
- Catalytic distillation is in the mid run.
- Long run distillation beyond membrane.
- Pelegrino 1999 say the target is 15-20 energy
reduction for U.S. refineries.
17Outline
- A vision for the future
- A simple guide to oil refining
- Energetic issues in an oil refinery
- Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve
energy consumption. - Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
- Fluid catalytic cracking
- Catalytic hydrotreating
- Catalytic reforming
- Alkylation
- Separation processes
- Recap and future directions
- References
18Thermodynamic analysis DOE 2006
- Remember the 5 processes with the largest energy
consumption? - A thermodynamic analysis of these 5 processes is
performed. - Three measures are defined
- TW Theoretical Work The least amount of energy
that a process would require under ideal
conditions. - CW Current Work Energy consumed under actual
plant conditions. - PW Practical Work Minimum energy required to
run the process in real-world, non-standard
conditions by applying cutting edge technologies
still on the drawing board. - By applying these state-of-the-art technologies
the maximum potential for energy savings can be
quantified by
PI (Potential Improvement) CW (Current Work)
PW (Practical Work)
19Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
- Atmospheric distillation
- It is the heart of the refinery.
- It produces a range of products, from LPG to
heavy crude residue. - High temperature (bottom 600oC), low pressure
(near atmospheric) process. - Vacuum distillation
- It has heavy crude (high boiling point) as
feedstock. - It must then be conducted at vacuum conditions.
- It produces light and heavy gas oil and asphalt
(or resid). - These products are upgraded.
20Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
21Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
- Atmospheric distillation energetic assessment
DOE 2006 - Theoretical work 22 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Current work 109 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Practical work 50 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Potential improvement 59 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- The potential improvement can be achieved by
(Gadalla 2003a, Gadalla 2003b, ANL 1999,
TDGI 2001, Liporace 2005, Seo 2000, Rivero
2004, Yeap 2005, Hovd 1997, Sharma 1999) - Control of fouling in the crude preheat train and
fired heater. - Improved heat integration between the atmospheric
and vacuum towers. - Improved tray design and heat integration between
trays, and optimization of the number of trays
and operating conditions for improved
vapor-liquid contact and higher throughput. - Enhanced cooling to lower overhead condenser
cooling water from 75F to 50F. - Implementation of advanced control.
22Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
- Vacuum distillation energetic assessment DOE
2006 - Theoretical work 46 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Current work 89 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Practical work 54 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Potential improvement 35 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- The potential improvement can be achieved by
(Gadalla 2003a, Gadalla 2003b, ANL 1999,
TDGI 2001, Sharma 1999, Liporace 2005, Seo
2000, Rivero 2004, Yeap 2005) - Control of fouling in the fired heater.
- Improved heat integration between the atmospheric
and vacuum towers. - Improved tray design and heat integration between
trays, and optimization of the number of trays
and operating conditions for improved
vapor-liquid contact and higher throughput. - Enhanced cooling to lower overhead condenser
cooling water from 75F to 50F. - Implementation of advanced control.
23Fluid catalytic cracking
- Objective Convert heavy oils into more valuable
gasoline and lighter products. - Feedstocks are light and heavy gas oil from
atmospheric or vacuum distillation, coking, and
deasphalting operations.
High temperature, catalytic cracking reactions
24Fluid catalytic cracking
25Fluid catalytic cracking
- Energetic assessment DOE 2006
- Theoretical work 40 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Current work 183 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Practical work 132 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Potential improvement 51 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- The potential improvement can be achieved by
(Linhoff 2002, ANL 1999) - Addition of a power recovery turbine.
- Conversion of condensing turbine drive to
electric motor drive (wet gas compressor). - Improved heat integration, pinch analysis.
- Minimization of other miscellaneous losses.
26Catalytic hydrotreating
- Objective Remove sulfur, nitrogen, and metals
and upgrade heavy olefinic feed by saturation
with hydrogen to produce paraffins. - It commonly appears in multiple locations in a
refinery (5 or more of these units). - They are usually placed upstream of units where
catalyst deactivation may occur. - Typically we can distinguish Naphtha
hydrotreater, kerosene hydrotreater, and gas oil
hydrotreater. - Main reactions
27Catalytic hydrotreating
28Catalytic hydrotreating
- Energetic assessment DOE 2006
- Theoretical work 30 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Current work 81 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Practical work 55 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Potential improvement 26 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- The potential improvement can be achieved by
(ANL 1999, Gary 2001, Linhoff 2002,
Liebmann 1998) - Improved pre-heater performance.
- Improved catalyst.
- Improved heat integration, pinch analysis.
- Minimization of other miscellaneous losses.
29Catalytic reforming
- Objective Convert naphthas and heavy
straight-run gasoline into high-octane gasoline
blending components and hydrogen production. - It essentially restructures hydrocarbon molecules
to increase the octane of motor gasoline. - Main reactions
- Dehydrogenation of naphthenes to aromatics
- Methylcyclohexane ? Toluene 3H2
- Methylcyclopentane ? Cyclohexane ? Benzene 3H2
- Dehydrocyclization of paraffins to aromatics
- n-Heptane ? Toluene 4H2
- Isomerization
- n-Hexane ? Isohexane
- Methylcyclopentane ? Cyclohexane
- Hydrocracking
- n-Decane ? Isohexane nButane
30Catalytic reforming
31Catalytic reforming
- Energetic assessment DOE 2006
- Theoretical work 79 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Current work 264 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Practical work 203 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Potential improvement 61 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- The potential improvement can be achieved by
(ANL 1999, Gary 2001, Packinox 2003) - Improved feed and interstage process heater
performance (e.g., improved convection section
heat recovery). - Replace horizontal feed/effluent heat exchangers
with vertical plate and frame exchanger. - Improved equipment efficiency (e.g., recycle and
net gas compressor, reactor product air cooler). - Additional process cooling to improve light ends
recovery (vapor compression vs. ammonia
absorption). - Minimization of other miscellaneous losses.
32Alkylation
- Objective Produce branched paraffins that are
used as blending components in fuels to boost
octane levels without increasing the fuel
volatility. - There are two alkylation processes sulfuric
acid-based and hydrofluoric acid-based. - Both are low-temperature, low-pressure,
liquid-phase catalyst reactions. - Main reaction
33Alkylation (H2SO4 process)
34Alkylation (H2SO4 process)
- Energetic assessment DOE 2006
- Theoretical work -58 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Current work 250 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Practical work 156 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- Potential improvement 94 x 103 Btu/bbl feed
- The potential improvement can be achieved by
(Gadalla 2003a, TDGI 2001, DOE 2006,
Schultz 2002) - Improved compressor efficiency, from 25 to 50.
- Improved heat integration, pinch analysis.
- Use of a dividing wall column design or other
advanced separation technology. - Upgraded control system.
35Summary
Process TW PW CW PI PI ()
103 Btu/bbl feed 103 Btu/bbl feed 103 Btu/bbl feed 103 Btu/bbl feed 103 Btu/bbl feed
1. Atmospheric distillation 22 50 109 59 54
2. Vacuum distillation 46 54 89 35 39
3. Alkylation H2SO4 -58 156 250 94 38
3. Alkylation HF -58 152 245 93 38
4. Catalytic hydrotreating 30 55 81 26 32
5. Fluid catalytic cracking 40 132 183 51 28
6. Catalytic reforming 79 203 264 61 23
- As expected, crude distillation (atmospheric and
vacuum) has the largest potential for savings. - Followed by alkylation and catalytic treatments.
- Note that separation sections are also included
in the conversion processes. - As a general potential improvement, I
particularly would also include assessment of the
control structure design of the refinery.
36Outline
- A vision for the future
- A simple guide to oil refining
- Energetic issues in an oil refinery
- Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve
energy consumption. - Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
- Fluid catalytic cracking
- Catalytic hydrotreating
- Catalytic reforming
- Alkylation
- Separation processes
- Recap and future directions
- References
37Separation processes
- The majority of the available literature is
related to the issue concerning distillation and
they are heavily concentrated in the atmospheric
and vacuum columns. I bet you know the reason! - Future solutions for improving energy efficiency
in separation processes in oil refineries are
basically related to - Membrane technology.
- Fouling mitigation.
- Advanced process control and optimization.
- Heat integration.
- Design of efficient separation systems.
- What follows are mostly on the drawing board,
i.e., no real-world implementation.
38Separation processes
- Membrane technology
- Wauquier 2000 discusses that membrane
technology is still an infant in the world of
grown-up inefficient processes in the oil
industry. Its main application is in
hydrodesulfurization processes in catalyst
hydrotreating units, replacing existing
separation processes with energy savings up to
20. - Nevertheless, Goulda 2001 and White 2000
claimed a fuel reduction of 36,000 bbl/year (or
20 w.r.t. the conventional process) by adding a
membrane unit in the dewaxing unit to recover
part of the solvent stream. The membrane is
selective to the solvent from the solvent/oil/wax
mix. - According to Szklo 2007, further research is
needed to develop appropriate membrane materials
that can withstand the harsh conditions in
petroleum refining processes.
39Separation processes
- Fouling mitigation
- Panchal 2000 presented a performance monitoring
via an Excel spreadsheet of the preheat train
for a crude distillation unit. The authors claim
that by using their technique the energy loss in
a period of 2 years can be reduced by almost 60. - Nasr 2006 proposed a model of crude oil fouling
in preheat exchangers with the aim of better
controlling fouling formation. In contrast with
other models, the one proposed by the authors
consider the mechanisms of formation and natural
removal. - Yeap 2005 presented the application of existing
fouling models to maximize heat recovery in the
preheat train of the crude oil distillation. The
authors conclusion was that designing for
maximum heat recovery results in a less efficient
system over time due to fouling effects. - However, Szklo 2007 states that the very
complex mechanisms which lead to fouling are
still not properly understood to the extent they
can be safely used for fouling mitigation
techniques (anti-fouling agents and coatings).
40Separation processes
- Advanced process control and optimization
- Domijan 2005 optimized a crude distillation
unit by using a model that, according to the
authors, has some advantages over commercial ones
since it is adapted to real plant conditions, it
is open source as well as flexible and fast.
Moreover, it can also identify fouling level and
be applied for planning shutdowns and maintenance
stops. They claimed they found an optimal
solution that saves up to 3.2 of energy
consumption vis-à-vis actual operating
conditions. - Seo 2000 considered the optimal design of the
crude distillation unit (atmospheric, vacuum, and
naphtha stabilizer) by optimizing feed locations,
heat duties of pumparounds and operating
conditions of the preheat train. They use a MINLP
framework. They claim the energy recovery in
pumparounds and preheat train could save up to 20
million kcal/h. - Hovd 1997 proposed the implementation of MPC in
a crude oil distillation. They used the MPC
package (D-MPC) of Fantoft Prosess and a linear
model of the process obtained using
first-principle model equations and laboratory
data. They implemented the MPC strategy in a
refinery in Sweden and reported a reduction in
energy consumption equivalent to USD20,000/year
for a project investment of USD250,000. - Gadalla 2003b performed a very simple
optimization of existing heat-integrated
distillation systems for crude oil units where
the column (with fixed configuration) and the
associated heat exchanger network are considered
simultaneously. Only one design (retrofit)
variable is assumed area of the HEN. They
claimed savings up to 25 over the base case.
41Separation processes
- Heat integration
- Gadalla 2006 optimized an existing crude
distillation column where a gas turbine/generator
is integrated with the preheat furnace. They
claim energy reductions of up to 21. The idea
was then to maximize the energy generated in the
gas turbine by adjusting the temperature of the
feed, reflux ratio, steam flow rates, temperature
difference of each pumparound, and the flow rate
of the liquid through each pumparound. - Gadalla 2005 studied the design of an
internally heat-integrated distillation column
for separating an equimolar propylene-propane
mixture where the 57 stages of the stripping
column are heated by the first 57 stages of the
rectification column. They claim that by
increasing the heat transfer rate per stage,
energy savings can reach up to 100 of reboiler
duties. For this, the compressor power would
increase only 15 w.r.t. the base HIDiC case. - By applying pinch analysis, Plesu 2003 propose
to thermally couple crude distillation units and
delayed coking units through the utility system.
They basically proposed to send the vacuum
bottoms to the delayed coking unit at a higher
thermal load and use this artifice to generate
part of the steam needed in the crude
distillation unit. They do not report energy
saving figures.
42Separation processes
- Heat integration
- Liebmann 1998 proposed a systematic algorithm
based on pinch analysis that lends to automation
of the design procedure of crude oil distillation
units where the column, the heat exchanger
network, and their simultaneous interactions are
considered together. Modifications that further
increase the efficiency of the process are
installation of reboilers rather than stripping
stream and the thermal coupling of column
sections. They claimed that units conceived by
this method can save up to 20 energy w.r.t. the
base case. - Szklo 2007 states that heat integration and
waste heat recovery appears as one of the main
options for saving fuel in the short to mid terms.
43Separation processes
- Design of efficient separation systems
- Szklo 2007 discussed the use of catalytic
distillation (CD) as an alternative to
hydrotreating units, namely to FCC gasoline. The
idea is to fractionate the gasoline by
distillation, which yields several gasoline
fractions, and then treat these fractions for
sulfur according to their prevailing sulfur
compound reactivities, all in the same unit.
Lighter fraction are treated more severely while
the heavier ones undergo desulfurization at
higher temperatures at the bottom of the CD
column. The authors claimed that up to 62 of
energy can be saved w.r.t. conventional HDS
processes. - Szklo 2007 also discussed the application of
biodesulfurization in replacement of conventional
HDS with energy savings of up to 80. This is at
the very beginning of development and the main
barriers are the understanding of biological
mechanisms of biocatalysts and the development of
efficient two-phase biodesulfurization systems. - Schultz 2002 defended the thesis that
dividing-wall columns (DWC) can save up to 30 in
energy costs. In this technology, remixing of
components towards the bottom or top of a direct
sequenced train which causes thermal inefficiency
is mitigated by cutting the product at their
maximum compositions. However, Szklo 2007
emphasized the need for further development of
DWC for major distillation processes in the oil
refining industry.
44Separation processes
- Design of efficient separation systems
- According to Pellegrino 1999 a potentially
attractive refining process modification is to
input the crude directly into controlled thermal
cracking units, thereby bypassing CDU. The idea
is to crack large hydrocarbon molecules (e.g.,
large asphaltene-type molecules) into smaller
ones. They reported a reduction in energy
consumption of 23 in addition to the fact that
up to 80 of the energy generated in the unit can
be recovered as reusable energy. - EIPCCB 2001 discussed the use of a radical
revamp that encompasses atmospheric and vacuum
distillation, gasoline fractionation, naphtha
stabilizer and gas plant in one unit progressive
distillation. It consists of a fairly complex set
of separation steps and extensively uses pinch
technology to minimize heat supplied by external
means. This technology is called progressive
distillation and the savings can reach up to 30
on total energy consumption for these units.
45Outline
- A vision for the future
- A simple guide to oil refining
- Energetic issues in an oil refinery
- Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve
energy consumption. - Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
- Fluid catalytic cracking
- Catalytic hydrotreating
- Catalytic reforming
- Alkylation
- Separation processes
- Recap and future directions
- References
46Recap and future directions
- It seems there is no radical revolution going on
in oil refining industrial so to handle energy
efficiency. Instead, the 2020 Vision report API
2000 lists - Reduction of fouling in heat exchangers is a
definite priority. - Improved convection in furnaces.
- Cogeneration needs to be optimized.
- Use of conventional distillation is minimized.
Try membrane and catalytic distillation. - Lets not forget research in catalysis.
- Comprehensive models in oil refinery are a must
DOE 2000. - Process optimization is definitely in the oil
refinery agenda Domijan 2005. - Investments in RD represent one way to help
drive the industry toward a higher level o energy
efficiency. However, implementation is still at
its very infancy as there are still technological
barriers. - Accordingly, separation processes need to be
updated. However, one should loop at the big
picture. - Needless to say, energy reduction ? CO2 emission
reduction!
47Recap and future directions
- Wanna a hint to decide your PhD project? Energy
efficiency program for future oil refineries.
Ease, 5 PhD projects - Fouling modeling and elucidation of its
mechanism in the crude distillation unit
(atmospheric and vacuum columns and respective
HEN) as well as development of anti-fouling
chemicals that little affects the refining
product quality. - Membrane theres still a technological barrier
with the current membranes. More research is
needed to extend the application to other
separation units throughout the refinery. - Advanced process control and optimization
investigation of plantwide control and
optimization (I only found these issues applied
to individual units). - Heat integration investigation of more plantwide
heat integration opportunities by pinch or exergy
analysis. - Distillation design more on reactive (catalytic)
distillation and dividing-wall technology applied
to energy-intensive units (FCC, alkylation,
hydrotreating, reforming, and crude distillation
units). Especially, biodesulfurization.
48Outline
- A vision for the future
- A simple guide to oil refining
- Energetic issues in an oil refinery
- Thermodynamic analysis and measures to improve
energy consumption. - Crude oil distillation (atmospheric and vacuum)
- Fluid catalytic cracking
- Catalytic hydrotreating
- Catalytic reforming
- Alkylation
- Separation processes
- Recap and future directions
- References
49References
- Gadalla 2003a Gadalla, M., Jobson, M., and
Smith, R., Increase Capacity and Decrease Energy
for Existing Refinery Distillation Columns,
Chemical Engineering Progress, April 2003, p. 44. - ANL 1999 - Petrick, M. and Pellegrino, J., The
Potential for Reducing Energy Utilization in the
Refining Industry, Argonne National Laboratory,
ANL/ESD/TM-158, August 1999. - Linhoff 2002 - Linhoff March, a division of KBC
Process Technology Ltd., The Methodology and
Benefits of Total Site Pinch Analysis, 2002,
http//www.linnhoffmarch.com/resources/technical.h
tml. - Gary 2001 - Gary, J.H., and Handwerk, G.E.,
Petroleum Refining Technology and Economics, 4th
Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY.,
2001. - Packinox 2003 - Reverdy, F., Packinox, Inc.,
High-Efficiency Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers,
presented at the 2003 Texas Technology Showcase,
Houston, Texas, March 2003. - Schultz 2002 - Schultz, M.A., Stewart, D.G.,
Harris, J.M., Rosenblum, S.P., Shakur, M.S., and
OBrien, D.E., Reduce Costs with Dividing-Wall
Columns, Chemical Engineering Progress, p. 64,
May 2002. - TDGI 2001 - The Distillation Group, Inc.,
Distillation Energy Savings Improvements with
Capital Investments (Section 4), 2001,
http//www.distillationgroup.com/distillation/H003
/H003_04.htm. - Liporace 2005 Liporace, F. S. and Oliveira,
S. G., Real-time fouling diagnosis and heat
exchanger performance, Petrobrás, Internal
communication, 2005. - Exxon 2005 ExxonMobil, A simple guide to oil
refining, 2005, http//www.exxonmobil.com/Europe-E
nglish/Files/Simple_Guide_to_oil_refining.pdf
50References
- DOE 1998 - U.S. Department of Energy, Energy
and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Petroleum
Refining Industry, Office of Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy, Office of Industrial
Technologies, 1998. - API 2000 - American Petroleum Institute,
Technology Vision 2020 A Technology Vision for
the U.S. Petroleum Refining Industry, October
1999. - Pellegrino 2005 - Pellegrino, J. and Carole, T.
M., Impacts of Condition Assessment on Energy
Use Selected Applications in Chemicals
Processing and Petroleum Refining, U.S.
Department of Energy, Industrial Technologies
Program, 2005. - Seo 2000 Seo, J. W., Oh, M., and Lee, T. H.,
Design Optimization of Crude Oil Distillation,
Chem. Eng. Technol. 23 , p. 2, 2000. - Sharma 1999 Sharma, R., Jindal, A.,
Mandawala, D., and Jana, S. K., Design/Retrofit
Targets of Pump-Around Refluxes for Better Energy
Integration of a Crude Distillation Column, Ind.
Eng. Chem. Res. 38, 2411-2417, 1999. - Al-Qahtani 2006 - Al-Qahtani, A. H., Al-Juhani,
A. Y., and Kumana, J. D., Detailed Energy
Assessment at Oil Refinery Tools and Results,
AIChE Annual Meeting, San Francisco, Nov 12-17,
2006. - Kosobokova 2001 Kosobokova, E. M. and
Berezinets, P. A., Developing an energy-saving at
oil refineries, Chemistry and Technology of Fuels
and Oils, Vol. 37, No. 1, 2001. - DOE 2000 U.S. Department of Energy,
Technology Roadmap for the Petroleum Industry,
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
Office of Industrial Technologies, 2000. - Liebmann 1998 Liebmann, K., Dhole, V. R., and
Jobson, M., Integrated design of a conventional
crude oil distillation tower using pinch
analysis, Trans IChemE, 76, Part A, 1998.
51References
- Panchal 2000 Panchal, C. B. and Huangfu,
E-P., Effects of Mitigating Fouling on the Energy
Efficiency of Crude-Oil Distillation, Heat
Transfer Engineering, 21 3-9, 2000. - Gadalla 2003b Gadalla, M., Jobson, M., and
Smith, R., Optimization of existing
heat-integrated refinery distillation systems,
Trans IChemE, Vol 81, Part A, January 2003. - Rivero 2004 Rivero, R., Rendón, C., Gallegos,
S., Exergy and exergoeconomic analysis of a crude
oil combined distillation unit, Energy 29,
19091927, 2004. - Szklo 2007 Szklo, A., Schaeffer, R., Fuel
specification, energy consumption and CO2
emission in oil refineries, Energy, 2006, In
press. - Goulda 2001 Goulda, R. M., White, L. S.,
Wildemuth, C. R., Membrane Separation in Solvent
Lube Dewaxing, Environmental Progress, 20 (1),
2001. - Domijan 2005 Domijan, P. and Kalpic, D.,
Off-Line Energy Optimization Model for Crude
Distillation Unit, IEEE ISIE, June 20-23,
Dubrovnik, Croatia, 2005. - Yeap 2005 Yeap, B. L., Wilson, D. I., Polley,
G. T., Pugh, S. J., Retrofitting Crude Oil
Refinery Heat Exchanger Networks to Minimize
Fouling While Maximizing Heat Recovery, Heat
Transfer Engineering, 26(1) 2334, 2005. - DOE 2006 - U.S. Department of Energy, Energy
Bandwidth for Petroleum Refining Processes,
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
Office of Industrial Technologies, 2006. - Al-Muslim 2005 - Al-Muslim, H. and Dincer, I.,
Thermodynamic analysis of crude oil distillation
systems, Int. J. Energy Res. 29, 637655, 2005. - Hovd 1997 Hovd, M., Michaelsent, R., Montin,
T., Model Predictive Control of a Crude Oil
Distillation Column, Computers Chem. Engng, Vol.
21, Suppl., pp. S893-S897, 1997.
52References
- Wauquier 2000 Wauquier, J. P., Petroleum
refining, Vol.2 Separation Processes, Editions
Technip, Paris, 2000. - White 2000 White, L. S. and Nitsch, A. R.,
Solvent recovery from lube oil filtrates with a
polyimide membrane, Journal of Membrane Science,
179, 267-274, 2000. - Nasr 2006 Nasr, M. R. J. and Give, M. M.,
Modeling of crude oil fouling in preheat
exchangers of refinery distillation units,
Applied Thermal Engineering 26, 1572-1577, 2006. - Worrell 2005 Worrell, E. and Galitsky, C.,
Energy efficiency improvement and cost saving
opportunities for petroleum refineries,
Environmental Energy Technologies Division,
Berkely, February 2005. - Gadalla 2006 Gadalla, M., Olujic, Z., Jobson,
M., and Smith R., Estimation and reduction od CO2
emissions from crude oil distillation units,
Energy 31, 2398-2408, 2006. - Gadalla 2005 Gadalla, M., Olujic, Z., Jansens,
P. J., Jobson, M., and Smith R., Reducing CO2
emissions and energy consumption of
heat-integrated distillation systems, Environ.
Sci. Technol. 39, 6860-6870, 2005. - EIPCCB 2001 EIPCCB. Reference document for BAT
for mineral refineries. Integrated pollution and
control. Belgium European Comission, 2001.