International Terrorism

1
International Terrorism

• Andreas Wimmer

2
Fundamental Questions

1. Is Terrorism warfare?
2. Is terror a legitimate tool?/ What is
   international terrorism?
3. Is terrorism more predominant in the post cold
   war area?
4. Is 9/11 significant?
5. Mass casualties, a serious threat?
6. What counter measures we can take against the
   threat?

3
(No Transcript)
4
Is Terrorism a legitimate tool?
5
Is Terrorism warfare?

• Colin Gray thesis All Terrorist are Soldiers.
• Another Bloody Century, Future Warfare
• Legitimating terrorism for the sake of war!
• Terror is a form of warfare in both conventional
  and insurgency wars.
• Terrorism against states or individuals not in a
  state of insecurity or declaring martial law
  remains a crime!

6
Is Terrorism warfare? Depends on the perspective
7
Is terror a legitimate tool?

• Philosophical explanation (definition on what is
  right? Or Who is right?)
• East Timor, War of Independence (17751783),
  French Revolution, Israel (1948)
• Pragmatic explanation
• Jurisprudence (resistance movements)
• International Law (Geneva Convention, U.N
  Charter)
• Adversary view (means are justified)
• Revolutionary warfare (Banastre Tarleton)
• War of Independence (Algerian Civil War 1990)
• Struggle, freedom fights or idiosyncratic
  millenarian movements
• Mahdi movement (Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd
  Allah 1845 - 1885 )

8
Jurisprudence on terrorism

1. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
   Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons,
   including Diplomatic Agents, New York, 14
   December 1973
2. International Convention against the Taking of
   Hostages, New York, 17 December 1979
3. International Convention for the Suppression of
   Terrorist Bombings, New York, 15 December 1997
4. International Convention for the Suppression of
   the Financing of Terrorism, New York, 9 December
   1999
5. Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts
   Committed on Board Aircraft, Tokyo, 14 September
   1963 ()
6. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful
   Seizure of Aircraft, The Hague, 16 December 1970
   ()
7. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
   against the Safety of Civil Aviation, Montreal,
   23 September 1971 ()
8. Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear
   Material, Vienna, 3 March 1980 ()
9. Protocol on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of
   Violence at Airports Serving International Civil
   Aviation, supplementary to the Convention for the
   Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety
   of Civil Aviation, Montreal, 24 February 1988 ()
   
10. Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
    against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, Rome,
    10 March 1988
11. Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
    against the Safety of Fixed Platforms located on
    the Continental Shelf, Rome, 10 March 1988
12. Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives
    for the Purpose of Detection, Montreal, 1 March
    1991 ()
13. 1949 Geneva Convention  

9
Is terror a legitimate tool?

• ICRC, Geneva Convention, UN Charter - a clear NO!
  
• Criminal Code a clear NO!
• Political perspective well fuzzy, as and if
  opportune (for state) for adversary always YES!
• Colonists (US War of Independence) - YES!
• Beaten on the battlefield, Francis Marion fixed
  British forces away from the main continental
  contingents. Actions by the British justified
  Colonists retaliatory actions

10
Is terror a legitimate tool?

• International humanitarian law prohibits without
  exception all acts of terror during international
  or non-international armed conflicts.
• This body of law also requires States to prevent
  and punish breaches. Acts of terrorism may
  constitute war crimes, subject to international
  jurisdiction, and the International Criminal
  Court may be competent to hear such cases.
• At the same time, the fight against terrorism and
  the prosecution of persons suspected of terrorism
  are subject to international humanitarian law if
  they take place during armed conflict. That body
  of law does not constitute an obstacle to the
  fight against terrorism. Indeed, suspected
  terrorists can be prosecuted for acts of
  terrorism. But even the members of armed forces
  or illegal fighters suspected of acts of
  terrorism are protected by the Geneva Conventions
  and are entitled to judicial guarantees if put on
  trial.
• http//www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/5
  FLCCX/File/irrc_847_Gasser.pdf
• http//www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList74
  /A728AA89F447446BC1256C5C00236A3B

11
International terrorism
12
Is 9/11 significant? - Perspectives

• Political
• Emotional resonance
• Starting now, life in America is about
  emergencies rather than ease
• Economical, Constitutional
• Patriot Act, curbing of civil liberties
• Economical switch to the Euro threatens US
  economy Iraqs invasion has economical
  justifications
• Ideological/ Religious
• Muslim perspective. Surah 911 does not appear
  relevant, but Surah 9111 is highly relevant
  because it firmly promises heavenly gardens to
  those who slay and are slain in Allah's way.
• Some historians noted that September 11, 1683
  the Battle of Vienna, was the turning point in a
  250-year struggle between the forces of the
  Christian West and the Islamic Ottoman Empire.

http//www.progressive.org/node/1777 James
Ashcroft, Virgin Books, Making A Killing, page
215
13
Is 9/11 significant? - Perspectives

• Strategic
• Hegemonic change of the United States
• Regional changes initiated
• Social
• Impact on the American soul
• Attack against the homeland first since 1941

14
U.S perspective

• Title 22, US Code, Section 2656f(d) (used by the
  Department of State and the CIA)
• Terrorism is premeditated, politically motivated
  violence perpetrated against non-combatant
  targets by sub-national groups or clandestine
  agents, usually intended to influence an
  audience.
• International terrorism is terrorism involving
  citizens or the territory of more than one
  country.
• A Terrorist group is any group practicing, or
  which has significant subgroups which practice,
  international terrorism.
• Federal Bureau of Investigation
• International terrorism involves violent acts or
  acts dangerous to human life that are a violation
  of the criminal laws of the United States or any
  state, or that would be a criminal violation if
  committed within the jurisdiction of the United
  States or any state. These acts appear to be
  intended to intimidate or coerce a civilian
  population, influence the policy of a government
  by intimidation or coercion, or affect the
  conduct of a government by assassination or
  kidnapping. International terrorist acts occur
  outside the United States or transcend national
  boundaries in terms of the means by which they
  are accomplished, the persons they appear
  intended to coerce or intimidate, or the locale
  in which the perpetrators operate or seek asylum.

15
U.S perspective

• U.S. State Departments official list of states
  supporting terrorism
• Political mandated by U.S Congress
• to take the moral high ground against terrorism
  with little political cost.
• With no objective criteria for deciding when
  countries should be placed on or removed from the
  list, inclusion is a purely political decision.
• Syria
• State Department testified in 1995 that it had no
  evidence of Syrian involvement in terrorism since
  1984!
• Serbia
• Not on the State Department list despite its
  support of Bosnian Serbs committing mass
  atrocities and terrorist acts in Bosnia.

http//www.criminology.fsu.edu/transcrime/article
s/counteringterrorism.htm
16
What is international terrorism?

• Religious terrorism
• Tends to be more violent then secular terrorism
• Amateur terrorism
• Lethal, self inspired, indirect sponsored
• Hamas vs. PLO
• Trade Center bombing 1983 (400, 6 killed, more
  than 1,000 injured, 180ft. Six storey deep
  crater, 550 million damage
• Professional terrorism
• Core cadre provide the foundation for amateurs
• Outome
• Accelerate in lethality since 1990

http//www.ciaonet.org/wps/hob01/
17
What is international terrorism?

• Agro-terrorism
• A subset of bioterrorism, agro-terrorism would
  involve the use of a biological agent against the
  agricultural industry and/or food supply.
• Cyber-terrorism
• A terrorist attack aimed at crippling the
  country's networking infrastructure through the
  use of viruses etc, which also results in
  violence against persons or property.
• Narco-terrorism
• This term does not refer to a method of attack,
  but rather to a description of the link between
  narcotics trafficking and terrorism it involves
  being a direct or indirect participant in drug
  trafficking and using the profits to advance or
  finance terrorist activities.
• WMD terrorism
• A terrorist attack utilizing a weapon of mass
  destruction (WMD), i.e. the use of a chemical,
  biological, nuclear or radiological weapon
• http//www.tamilnation.org/tamileelam/armedstruggl
  e/terrorism/index.htm
• http//www.armscontrolcenter.org/terrorism/101/def
  initions.html

18
Conclusions

• No conclusive definition but commonly accepted
  legal, moral definitions of what terrorism is
  generally perceived
• Interpretation subject to change and often
  defined by the type of response
• US perspective (direct historically kinetic)
• European perspective (indirect)
• Asian perspectives (mixed)
• Adversaries perspective (direct historically
  kinetic, only when defeated pattern changes)

19
U.S policy example

• Make no concessions to terrorists and strike no
  deals
• Bring terrorists to justice for their crimes
• Isolate and apply pressure on states that sponsor
  terrorism to force them to change their behavior
  and,
• Bolster the counterterrorism capabilities of
  countries that work with the United States and
  require assistance.

http//www.fas.org/irp/threat/commission.html
20
Historical Statistical Data
21
(No Transcript)
22
Historical view 1997 data
23
Most deadliest groups 1997 data
24
1997 The Year of Violence
25
Terrorist Incidents by Region 01/01/1968 -
12/24/2006 
Region Incidents Injuries Fatalities
Africa 1059 9208 3496
East Central Asia 242 5584 253
Eastern Europe 1405 5100 1984
Latin America the Caribbean 3616 3854 2322
Middle East / Persian Gulf 12424 44435 22014
North America 576 4221 3566
South Asia 4604 22097 8071
Southeast Asia Oceania 1556 5090 1791
Western Europe 5473 5642 1439
TOTAL 30955 105231 44936


26
Terrorist Incidents by Target 01/01/1968 -
12/24/2006 
Target Incidents Injuries Fatalities
Airports Airlines 4 166 43
Business 23 2962 2913
Diplomatic 22 5739 414
Government 20 344 364
Journalists Media 4 92 32
Maritime 1 39 17
Military 24 296 430
NGO 3 6 19
Other 14 366 190
Police 12 338 88
Private Citizens Property 35 1629 287
Religious Figures/Institutions 3 69 25
Tourists 5 405 223
Transportation 29 847 260
Unknown 14 3 15
Utilities 1 0 6
TOTAL 214 13301 5326
27
1980 1990/ 1990 - 2006
Month Incidents Injuries Fatalities
January 1798 4688 2030
February 1521 4941 2211
March 1622 11929 2330
April 1410 3963 1789
May 1401 4653 1929
June 1573 4751 2051
July 1816 4795 2173
August 1851 11365 2937
September 1529 7941 5373
October 1736 5812 2512
November 1670 4765 1983
December 1828 4851 2108
TOTAL 19755 74454 29426


Month Incidents Injuries Fatalities
January 238 176 165
February 240 578 157
March 341 1060 361
April 327 1983 310
May 265 314 109
June 279 277 464
July 278 990 223
August 302 619 193
September 315 1100 447
October 315 1098 541
November 236 389 370
December 276 765 527
TOTAL 3412 9349 3867
MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Database RAND
28
Evolution of Terrorism
29
Opposing Viewpoints(2000 2004)

• Is Terrorism a Serious Threat
• Terrorism is a Serious Threat (Hoffman, Paul
  Bremer!)
• The Threat of Terrorism is Overstated (1997-2000)
  Larry C. Johnson/ William Church
• WMD Do Not Pose a Terrorist Threat
• Terrorism Against Information Systems Is a Threat
• The Threat of Terrorism is Being Reduced (John
  Ashcroft! - 2004)
• Biological Terrorism Is a Serious Threat (2004)
• The Threat of Biological Terrorism has been
  exaggerated (2004)
• America Is a Serious Terrorist Threat (2004)
• Southeast Asia Terrorism Is a Serious Problem
  (2004)
• Narco-terrorism Is a Serious Threat (2004)

30
Opposing Viewpoints(2000 2004)

• What Motivates Terrorism?
• Religious Fanaticism Motivates Terrorists
• Postwar Developments Motivate Terrorists
• Democracy Encourages Terrorism
• Economic Distress Motivates Terrorists (2000
  2004)
• Israeli Actions Motivate Middle East Terrorists
• A combination of factors motivate Terrorists
• What Are the Causes of Terrorism?
• Islam Encourages Terrorism (2004)
• Islam Does Not Encourage Terrorism (2004)
• Economic Problems Cause Terrorism (2004)
• Israel's Occupation of Palestine Causes Terrorism
  (Hamas 2004)
• Palestinian Hatred of Israel Causes Terrorism

31
Opposing Viewpoints(2000 2004)

• Can Terrorism be Justified?
• Resistance to Tyranny Justifies Violence against
  U.S government
• Resistance to British Rule Justifies Bombings in
  Northern Ireland
• Bombings in Northern Ireland Cannot be Justified
• American Policies in the Middle East Justify
  Islamic Terrorism (Osama Bin Laden interview)
• Israeli Occupation of Palestine Justifies Islamic
  Terrorism
• The Islamic Faith Does Not Condone Terrorism

32
Opposing Viewpoints(2000 2004)

• How Should the United States respond?
• Tougher Aviation Security Measures Will Help
  Reduce Terrorism
• Tougher Aviation Security Measures Will Not
  Reduce Terrorism
• The U.S Should Retaliate Against Terrorist Groups
• Retaliation Efforts Against Terrorists Are
  Fruitless
• Expanding the FBIs Power is a necessary Response
  to Terrorism (Louis J. Freeh)
• CT Legislation is a Dangerous Expansion of
  Governmental Powers
• How Should Americas Domestic War on Terrorism Be
  Conducted? (2004)
• Antiterrorism Legislation Will Make America Safer
• Antiterrorism Legislation Threatens Civil
  Liberties
• Racial Profiling Will Make America Safer
• Racial Profiling Will Make America Less Safe
• Immigration Must Be Restricted to Protect America
  Against Terrorists
• Immigrants Enhance National Security

33
Opposing Viewpoints(2004) surprise entry

• How Should the International Community Respond to
  Terrorism?
• The UN Should Lead the Fight Against Terrorism
  vs. Should Not Lead the Fight
• War Is an Appropriate Response to Terrorism
• War Is the Wrong Response to Terrorism
• Brokering a Peace Between Israel Palestinians
  Can Reduce Terrorism vs. Will Not Reduce
  Terrorism

34
Old vs. New Terror

• Old terror (system/state terror?)
• Mid-eastern PLO (supported by Stasi ergo the
  Soviets!) nationalistic
• Defined, set of political, social or economic
  objectives, taking credit with communiqués or
  explaining their actions
• Marxist-Leninist movements
• South America
• FARC, MRTA, SL, Sandinistas
• Europe
• RAF, Red Brigades
• Nationalistic
• IRA, ETA

35
New forms of Terrorism

• New so new (Hoffman)
• Religious imperatives encapsulates the confluence
  of the adversary, motivation and rationale
• Less cohesive organizational entities
• Amorphous, religious or millenarian aims
• Obscure, zealous nationalist religious groups
• Self started, home grown
• Converted from nationalistic aims to
  divine-inspired, mystical, vehemently
  anti-government

36
1980 1990/ 1990 - 2006
Month Incidents Injuries Fatalities
January 1798 4688 2030
February 1521 4941 2211
March 1622 11929 2330
April 1410 3963 1789
May 1401 4653 1929
June 1573 4751 2051
July 1816 4795 2173
August 1851 11365 2937
September 1529 7941 5373
October 1736 5812 2512
November 1670 4765 1983
December 1828 4851 2108
TOTAL 19755 74454 29426


Month Incidents Injuries Fatalities
January 238 176 165
February 240 578 157
March 341 1060 361
April 327 1983 310
May 265 314 109
June 279 277 464
July 278 990 223
August 302 619 193
September 315 1100 447
October 315 1098 541
November 236 389 370
December 276 765 527
TOTAL 3412 9349 3867
MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Database RAND
37
(No Transcript)
38
New forms of Terrorism

• Ethical/nationalistic
• Stronger ideological reasons
• Broad based social movement, no longer close knit
  former war veterans.
• Old Al Qaeda not entirely superseded
• Centralized targeting, ideological direction
  operational support
• Emergence of autonomous, self-recruited self
  starter cells
• Coalesce spontaneous plan attack without
  reference or active involvement of the global
  jihad

http//www.iiss.org/publications
39
Is terrorism more predominant in the post cold
war area?

• Predominant extremist fundamental causes are deep
  rooted sovereign political state issues.
  Terrorism in the post-Cold War world is tied to
  the sovereign state system more than ever before.
  
• Since 1991 terrorism has always been motivated by
  parochial ethnic, national, and religious
  loyalties than by universalism ideologies.
  Terrorism is a international problems extending
  beyond sovereignty and rooted in the sovereign
  state system rather than less.
• Focused on creating their own revolutionary
  Islamic regimes rather then submerging them in
  utopian Ummah of the Bin Laden world. However
  the Ummah concept does have its attractors.
• This is in sharp contrast to the Cold War years
• Assumption that terrorism was primarily a product
  of an international conspiracy created by the
  Soviet Union to spread communism and Soviet
  foreign policy. That assumption was never totally
  accurate.

Cusimano, Maryann K.  2000. Beyond Sovereignty
Issues for a Global Agenda. Pp. 96-107
http//www.criminology.fsu.edu/transcrime/articles
/counteringterrorism.htm
40
Commonalities
41
(No Transcript)
42
Commonalities

• Goals, strategies, operations, organization,
  ideology, Target, objective, motive, perpetrator,
  and legitimacy or legality of the act.
• Escalation of force Trigger for violence
• Intifada (Jewish truck driver overrun 5
  Palestinians) exploit situation for political
  aims
• (Aggressive) response by governments

43
Commonalities

• Visuals, need for expression
• Terrorist groups were dealing with, I think,
  are bound to visuals.
• Government platitudes
• All insurgents are terrorists
• Poor law enforcement
• Corruption (Azahari, 50,000 IDR)
• Lack of transparent governance
• Social grievances (Thailand)

44
Mass casualties, a serious threat?

• "Trends in terrorism over the past 15 years
  indicate that loosely linked transnational
  networks motivated primarily by religious
  ideologies seeking mass casualties are replacing
  more 'traditional' terrorists who are motivated
  primarily by politics," says Jason Pate, a senior
  research associate at the Monterey Institute of
  International Studies. "These ominous trends
  suggest the potential for mass-casualty attacks,
  and because biological agents could be used in
  this fashion, the potential for mass-casualty
  bioterrorism may be at hand."

http//usinfo.state.gov/journals/itps/1101/ijpe/pj
63pate-2.htm
45
Mass casualties, a serious threat?

• Definition of mass casualties reached new meaning
  at the 9/11 attacks
• Al Qaeda model, once a year but big!
• High media impact
• High casualties
• Aggressive response by state to alienate masses

46
Mass casualties, a serious threat?

• Strains the state security apparatus
• Strains response systems
• To maintain stability and effectiveness of
  medical, political and Internal Security systems
• Objectives to weaken and collapse the state,
  society and the will to fight
• High levels of casualties result in emotional
  response

47
Countermeasures
48
(No Transcript)
49
Components of Counter Terror policy

• Public policy diplomacy
• Responsibility of political leadership
• Political aspects of terrorism
• Law enforcement public security
• Deals with the criminal aspects apprehension
  judiciary process
• Intelligence
• Terrorism are largely covert actions
• Identify intend and prevent, apprehend or
  divert/foil the attack
• The use of force, including covert action
• proactive in contrast to the mainly reactive
  tactics of law enforcement and public security.
• Conciliation
• Re-integration of former adversaries to return to
  society Process of public healing

50
What counter measures we can take against the
threat?

• Addressing the ideological battle
• Recognizing the strong bond within the social
  cell unit structure
• Zero tolerance policy (French position)
• Countering the media advantage
• Denying battle space, refuge/sanctuaries
• Identifying the less evidence more gut feeling
  is needed. Intuitive response

51
Principal Strategy

• Terrorism cannot be treated as a monolithic
  threat.
• Kinetics is only one aspect. CT strategies are a
  means to the End
• Moreover, as much as we may wish to focus on the
  terror tactics and terrorist means, we cannot
  overlook the ends.
• Policy response must incorporate understanding of
  terrorist strategy
• Terrorist groups evolve, so must the governments
  response
• Multiple response strategy
• Address and recognize grievance by population
• Secure the population
• Bolster state legitimacy, demonstrate state
  effectiveness regarding insecurity.
• Build coalition if necessary cross border promote
  social values

52
If history is a teacher..

• Every successful CT strategy included
• Fair and firm leadership
• Clear defined policy objectives
• Homegrown political will desire to change and
  resisting extremist forces
• Unified response command, but defined roles for
• Police
• Intelligence
• Military
• Strategic Intelligence

53
I.C.A.R.U.L.S.K/ I.K.A.R.U.S

• Intelligence
• Community/Kinetics
• Authority
• Religious
• Unconventional
• Security

54
Intelligence

• Small focused
• Credible accepted field officers
• Promote an environment of trust
• Population, informers and build support base
• Support collection
• Disseminate at tactical response level
• Exploit at strategic level
• Abuses by the adversary

55
(No Transcript)
56
Ideological battle

• Web mail, Internet, home made video clips, hand
  phone cameras
• Muaskar al-Battar (The Camp of al-Battar, the
  name of Mohammeds sword)
• Sawt al-Jihad (The Voice of Jihad)
• Total empowerment for moderate forces
• Education, education, education in schools on
  presenting the dangers of extremism

57
(No Transcript)
58
Authority

• Provide an recognized authority
• Health support
• Property ownership
• Respected responsive police
• Central government leadership at local and
  regional level
• Education

59
Religion

• Ensure religion is not hijacked by extremism
• Maintain control on religious teachings
• Expose and exploit identified false believers or
  preachers of hate and dissent
• Maintain close relationship between religious
  groups

60
Unconventional

• Community Development Programs
• Sports, Children, Elderly
• Transportation
• Road conditions
• Media, print and modern communications
• Football game (Soviets loved German TV,
  Bay(be)-watch)
• Emergency support in case of needs
• Water supplies, telephone, electricity, heat
• Direct Action
• Use of force counter extreme violence, brutality
  or bestiality
• Human Aspect

61
Community

• Must be immediately part of the intelligence
  combined efforts
• Listen grievances and provide sustainable
  protection
• Support basic needs (water, shelter, health)
• Keep it simple and honest
• Identify and respect customs
• Shelter, Hospitality Retaliation tribal concepts

62
Law Enforcement

• Apprehension
• Functioning court
• Prison process
• Investigation of capital crime and persecution of
  capital crimes

63
State

• Transparent, honest and better then the adversary
• Economical supportive
• Defined leadership, clear, concise and perceived
  as incorruptible
• Clear political and strategic mandates
• Supportive educative of its citizens
• but, avoid the rumor drivers

64
Kinetics

• Restraint but effective
• Avoid pink misting
• Overly aggressive use of precision ammunition
• Public education of being at war means loosing
  men
• Clear defined use of force at strategic
  tactical level
• Increase in SOF, CT forces globally

65
Conclusions

• If History is a teacher!

66
Deep rifts within the political spectrum

• Fighting terrorism, what terrorism is generally
  is, the concept of terror, strong support
• The interventions in Iraq strong diverse views
  increasingly less supported
• Afghanistan morally supported, the aim, goals
  adversary are clear!
• Fear of increasing governance influencing civil
  liberties under the mantle fighting terrorism
• Clash of civilization is feared dividing
  societies
• Bilateral relationship are not exploited enough
• Terrorism broad stroked with war is unlikely
  providing a solution.

67
References Perspectives

• Hamas in its own words http//www.jewishvirtuallib
  rary.org/jsource/Terrorism/Hamas1.html
• Cyber terrorism http//www.techweb.com/wire/story/
  TWB19980923S0016
• http//www.criminology.fsu.edu/transcrime/articles
  /counteringterrorism.htm
• James Ashcroft, Making A Killing, Virgin Books,
  pg. 215
• http//usinfo.state.gov/journals/itps/1101/ijpe/pj
  63pate-2.htm
• Cusimano, Maryann K.  2000. Beyond Sovereignty
  Issues for a Global Agenda. Pp. 96-107
• http//www.iiss.org/publications
• MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Database RAND
• http//www.fas.org/irp/threat/commission.html
• http//www.tamilnation.org/tamileelam/armedstruggl
  e/terrorism/index.htm
• http//www.armscontrolcenter.org/terrorism/101/def
  initions.html
• http//www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/5
  FLCCX/File/irrc_847_Gasser.pdf
• http//www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList74
  /A728AA89F447446BC1256C5C00236A3B
• http//www.ciaonet.org/wps/hob01/