Mathematics and the Developing Countries: Mathematics in Africa

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Mathematics and the Developing Countries: Mathematics in Africa

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Title: Mathematics and the Developing Countries: Mathematics in Africa

1
Mathematics and the Developing CountriesMathemat
ics in Africa

Andreas Griewank Gareth Witten
Humboldt Universität Berlin, CDC_at_IMU University
of Cape Town , SA
Laure Pauline Fotso Mohamed Jaoua
University of Yaoundé I, Cameroon Nice/Tunisia
Wandera Ogana Bernard Philippe
University of Nairobi, Kenya INRIA Rennes
Leif Abrahamsson TSOU Sheung Tsun
Uppsala University , Sweden Oxford University,
CDC_at_ EMS

Roundtable_at_5ECM, Amsterdam
1
2
Challenges with the development of advanced
Centres of Excellence Gareth Witten, University
of Cape Town , SA

Mathematics and science are key priorities
Research Chairs - 21 scientists in different
fields. The aim is to create 56 research chairs
by 2008, and 210 by 2010.
Several Centres of Excellence - increase in the
applications of mathematics
Increase in graduates from mathematics
departments due to new postgraduate courses in
modern applied mathematics programmes, e.g.
mathematical finance, mathematical biology.

3
Challenges with the development of advanced
Centres of Excellence Gareth Witten, University
of Cape Town , SA

A Student's perspective
- Lack of career path
- Affirmative action
- Economics
- Outdated curricula
Institutional Perspective
- lack of collaboration and healthy competition
- lack of motivation due to poor remuneration

Remedies
- Mutual support network
- Improved TL in institutions
- Establish link between industry and ed.
Institutions
- improve standards of ed. through peer-review
process
- Encourage involvement of the African Diaspora

4
5ECM 14 - 18 July 2008Amsterdam RAI, The
Netherlands

Mathematics and Developing Countries Round
TableCase of Mathematics in Cameroon

Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
4
5
Plan

Introduction
Status Quo of mathematics in statistical terms
Challenges with the Development of advanced
centres of Excellences
Barriers
Remedies

Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
5
6
Introduction

Focus on the two topics
Status Quo of mathematics in statistical terms
and Challenges with the Development of advanced
centres of Excellences.
With regard topic 1
Information on FS of UYI where is the mother
Department of Mathematics in Cameroon.
Projection on Department of Mathematics
Statistics on departments of mathematics of
Cameroonian universities.
Concerning topics 2
barriers (political, economical and cultural)
remedies
Twining of departments
Strategies to persuade African governments to
support the development of mathematics

Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
6
7
Status Quo in statistical terms Facts on FS of
UYI

Human resources
Ratio teacher/students 1/53 in 2007.
240 teachers (28 full Prof., 38 Ass. Prof. 139
Lecturers, 35 assistant lecturers)
Infrastructures and equipment
classrooms capacity 3200 seats,
one main University library capacity 200 seats,
80 computers (60 for students and 20 for
teachers)
Teaching load
to cover 80 of the program, 102491 hours are
needed with 17 for lectures, 44 for tutorials
39 for practical lessons.
Only 37 of these hours can be covered on normal
duty ?need of 63 of over time from teachers

Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
7
8
Status Quo in statistical terms Facts on FS of
UYI

The teaching overload heavily and negatively
affects the quality of
Teaching
Thesis supervision or direction and
Research.
Teaching conditions Use of old teaching
techniques
? 15 teachers have electronic lectures notes
? 20 of courses have lectures notes manuals
0 online lectures.
Success rate
30 at from level 1 to 2
meantime for bachelor degree is 5 instead of 3
years
from 3 students enrolled at level 1 1 passes to
2, 1 repeats, 1drops out

Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
8
9
Status Quo in statistical terms Facts on FS of
UYI

Student population

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Level 1 4123 3602 4277 2930 4030 3870 5296 5302 7 064
Level 2 1188 1467 1519 1752 1760 1386 1860 2179 2 511
Level 3 814 1275 1604 1622 1967 2150 2271 2233 2 552
Level 4 313 685 877 1182 943 1452 1601 1505 1 456
Level 5 96 208 429 476 358 514 435 280 264
Total 6534 7237 8706 7962 9058 9372 11463 11499 13847
Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
9
10
Status Quo in statistical terms Facts on FS of
UYI

Student population

Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
10
11
Status Quo in statistical terms FS UYI
(Department of Mathematics)

Human resources 26 teachers with 4 full Prof.,
2 Ass. Prof.,16 lecturers, 4 assistant lecturers.
Infrastructures and Equipment 09 office rooms
(average 2 seats per room), 0 computer for
undergraduate students,05 computers for 26
teachers
Teaching load
Average teaching load per teacher 323 hours.
Average number of different subjects taught by a
teacher 3.8.
only 33.2 of hours can be covered on normal
time.
Up to 67.7 must be covered on overtime by
permanent teachers.
Student population in 2007/2008 up to level 5

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Total
988 410 596 240 26 2260
Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
11
12
Status Quo in statistical terms Departments
of Mathematics of Cameroon

Student population in 2006/2007

U. Buea U. Douala U. Douala U. Dschang U. Yaoundé I U. Yaoundé I Total
U. Buea ENSET FS U. Dschang ENS FS Total
Level 1 2765(279) 312(24) 1779(244) 1250(239) 675(120) 5302(863) 20509(3132)
Level 2 2765(279) 235(21) 802(99) 395(80) 627(111) 2179(291) 20509(3132)
Level 3 2765(279) 365(34) 459(82) 496(81) 635(108) 2233(456) 20509(3132)
Bachelor level 2765(279) 912(79) 3040(425) 2141(400) 1937(339) 9714(1610) 20509(3132)
Level 4 137(7) 212(14) 277(31) 82(13) 772(65) 1505(177) 2848(300)
Level 5 137(7) 215(14) 9(0) 23(4) x(x) 534(27) x(x)
Total 2924(286) 1339(107) 3328(456) 2252(417) x(x) 11924(1818)
Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
12
13
Status Quo in statistical terms Departments
of Mathematics of Cameroon

Teacher population in 2006/2007

U. Buea U. Douala U. Douala U. Dschang U. Yaoundé I U. Yaoundé I Total
U. Buea ENSET FS U. Dschang ENS FS Total
Full Professor 6(0) 1(0) 1(0) 4(0) 8(1) 26(4) 46(5)
Associate Professor 7(2) 1(0) 2(0) 7(1) 32(1) 48(2) 97(3)
Lecturer 65(4) 30(x) 65(x) 66(x) 92(x) 133(16) 451(x)
Assistant Lecturer 67(x) 22(x) 25(x) 31(x) 22(x) 10(4) 177(x)
Teaching Assistant (held by PhD students) 0(0) 5(x) 9(x) 0(0) 0(0) 30(4) 44(x)
Total 145(x) 59(x) 102(x) 108(x) 154(x) 247(30) 815(x)
Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
13
14
Challenges with advanced centres of Excellences
Barriers

Political
No policy of investment in research in general
No restriction at the entrance of the first level
of the university with the exception of the
University of Buea ? massicification problem ?
teachers at all levels heavily overloaded with
teaching hours ? no time left to build and
strengthen quality research centres.
Research carried out by African mathematicians is
not perceived by political power as appropriate
for the local development of the country
Most African mathematicians continue to work on
research topics dealt with in their doctorate
studies in Europe or North America.
Few African mathematicians hold key decision
making or taking position.
National Mathematical Society not functioning in
some African countries like Cameroon

Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
14
15
Challenges with advanced centres of Excellences
Barriers

Economical
Low salary condition ? teachers invest themselves
in parallel activities ? low quality research ?
stagnation of carrier advancement. Example only
6 teachers at the magisterial level out of the 26
teachers of Math Dept of FS of UYI, ? 72
stagnated as lecturers and usually remain to
retirement.
Insufficient research grants for PhD students.
only 4 teaching assistantships for more than 20
PhD students.
Low seating capacity of classrooms ?
impossibility of scheduling all the courses hours
? insufficient coverage of the full programme
insufficient computers equipment for teachers as
well as for students
Best PhD graduates immigrate to European or North
American universities for better leaving and
teaching conditions.
Poorly furnished library and no access to online
publications

Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
15
16
Challenges with advanced centres of Excellences
Barriers

Cultural
Mathematicians are believed to be too squared to
adjust in society.
Mathematicians do not know how to compromise in a
world full of compromises
Classical logic is not in accordance with the
African culture where fuzzy reasoning and chaos
reign. In African culture for example, the
concept of time and distance is irrelevant

Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
16
17
Challenges with advanced centres of Excellences
Remedies

Twining of departments
Co direction of Master and PhD thesis with
mobility of students and teachers will boost the
quality of the thesis.
Visiting professors from the North
Joint project proposal redaction addressing key
development areas of Africa such as management of
natural resources, food security, health and
corruption.
Departments from the developed countries can
share with their twins from developing countries
access right to online scientific documentation
Access right to online lectures notes
Lectures notes manuals
software licences

Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
17
18
Challenges with advanced centres of Excellences
Remedies

Strategies to persuade African governments to
support the development of mathematics
Creation of lobby groups
More mathematicians should develop interest in
politics and do politics to seat at the decision
making and decision taking tables
African mathematicians should carry out more
applied researches for the development of Africa
Existing applied research results should be made
visible
Good applied research projects for development
should be proposed to the government for funding.
African mathematicians should actively be
involved in using their knowledge in solving
African daily problems
Sensitisation workshops on the use of mathematics
for development with concrete examples will help
Large diffusion through different type of media
(written press, radio, television, Internet,
etc.) of concrete (visible in the country)
examples of the use of mathematics in solving
African development problems

Laure Pauline Fotso
FS, University of Yaoundé I Email
l_fotso_at_yahoo.com
18
19
THANK YOU
20
Is Mathematical research an issue for a
developing country ? Mohamed JAOUA

Université de Nice Sophia Antipolis UNESCO
Chair, Tunis

21
Problems a DC scientist has to face

Legitimacy
Doesnt research compete education ?
Concentration vs dissemination
Specialization vs diversity
And the conflict on time and priorities
Are our researchers credible ?
They didnt invent anything we use or need
We just dont know how efficient they are no
evaluation system
Do we really need it now ?
And are we willing to pay the price ? Scientists,
politicians, and people
Scarcity
Material means though Maths and even Applied
Maths dont need much
But what about human resources ?
They are scarce ...
And above all diverted to the single field
providing recognition politics
As for Applied Mathematics
Weak industry gt no problems to solve
Weak technical management gt no people to talk
with
Arent applications too much high tech , isnt
all this stuff beyond whats needed ?

22
Applied Mathematics are crucial for DC

Needed to produce engineers
A crucial point for any industrial development
Development new paradigms have upsurged from
The digital revolution
Mathematical and numerical modelling are the
heart of every industrial process
Targets are rapidly moving from high tech
applications to every day ones
Computer costs are dropping
The industrial globalization
Industrial processes are no longer local
Technology needs to be proceeded in any place at
its current level
A new deal, with real opportunities for those who
master Mathematics and IT

23
A tunisian experience

1983-2008 The LAMSIN
A built from scratch Applied Math laboratory
Relying on a serious mathematical background
80 researchers (30 PhD and 12 Professors)
3 research teams associated to INRIA, 2000
Good publication activity in international
journals
Master and Doctoral School in Applied Maths
A regional role, and an international recognition
Networks TamTam (Maghreb), Sarima (Africa),
UNESCO Chair Maths and development - awarded
2003
AUF regional Excellence Pole (2003 )
An indeed international place
Collaborative research on mutual interest topics
Co-advised PhD theses
Conferences (TAM-TAM, PICOF, CARI), workshops,
...

24
Elements of strategy

Gather together the research force
A single national lab for research but
Its researchers teach in several Universities
Push away the borders
Regional groupments
Maghreb, Africa, EuroMediterranean
Maximal international opening, bringing
Expertise, structure, legitimacy
North/South complementarities
Jealously save the scientific independence
However, a global policy is crucial
1996 has been the turning point in Tunisia
Better have a lot of luck

25
Main concerns

How to deal with thematic transferts ?
Focus on methods acquisition
Relevance to local applications would come later
IT boom, and methods migration, have helped much
Can brain drain be opposed in an open world ?
Make your place a nice one to work and live in
Produce more than they can take
Make globalization a chance to that respect (cf
India)
North and South are finally on the same boat
Much can be done on the spot
Governance is a crucial issue for the future
Relevant decisions regarding science need
scientists
Building capacities is a long run task, needing
broad vision politicians, and a social control

26
Thank you for your attention
www.lamsin.rnu.tn
27
Promoting mathematics in Africa through
theAfrican Mathematics Millennium Science
Initiative (AMMSI)

by
Wandera Ogana
AMMSI PROGRAMME DIRECTOR
School of Mathematics, University of Nairobi,
P.O. Box 30197, GPO 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail wogana_at_uonbi.ac.ke
Presented at the Round Table on Mathematics and
the Developing World. 5th European Congress of
Mathematics, 17 th July 2008, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands

28
1. BRIEF HISTORY
29
1.1 Millennium Science Initiative (MSI)

Formulated and fostered by the World Bank in late
1990s
Main Goal Promote ST spearheaded by scientists
in the Developing countries
Administered by Science Initiative Group (SIG)
Activities in South America and Asia Brazil,
Chile, Mexico, Vietnam etc

30
1.2 World Bank/SIG Initiative for Africa

Meetings organised through the African Academy of
Sciences (AAS) and the Thirld World Academy of
Sciences (TWAS), during 2000 2002, led to
establishment of initial stage of African MSI in
Instrumentation Information Technology
Biotechnology
Mathematics
Meetings of writing group on Mathematics held
during 2003 2004
African Mathematics Millennium Science Initiative
established in 2005
Seed money by The Mellon Foundation and the
International Mathematical Union in 2005

31
2. OBJECTIVES

To strengthen the teaching and learning of
university mathematics and its applications.
To support research in mathematics and
mathematics education
To enhance capacity through linkages and networks
To undertake outreach and public education in
mathematics
To enhance the use of ICT in mathematics teaching
and learning

32
3 ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE
33
3.1 Distributed Network

Five Regional Offices each run by a Regional
Coordinator
Central Africa Yaounde, Cameroon (Prof. Bitjong
Ndombol)
Eastern Africa Nairobi, Kenya (Prof. Wandera
Ogana)
Southern Africa Gabarone, Botswana (Prof. Edward
Lungu)
Western Africa, Zone 1 Ibadan, Nigeria (Prof.
Samwel Ilori)
Western Africa, Zone 2 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
(Prof. Hamidou Toure)
Programme Office located in Nairobi, Kenya

34
3.2 AMMSI Programme Committee

Members AMMSI Regional Coordinators
Main Functions
To Write project proposals for funding
To Formulate and design programmes
To Implement activities
To Liaise with collaborating institutions

35
3.3 Selection and Evaluation Committee

Members
Prof Bernt Øksendal, University of Oslo, Norway
(Facilitator)
Prof Augustin Banyaga, Pennsylvania State
University, USA
3rd Member to be appointed from Central Africa
Main Functions
To select Fellowship candidates
To select and evaluate research projects
To evaluate the operations of AMMSI

36
4. ACTIVITIES TO DATE
37
4.1 Research/Visiting Scientist Fellowships

To enable staff conduct research and postgraduate
teaching at host universities in sub-Saharan
African for periods ranging from a few weeks to
one year
15 Fellowships awarded during 2005 2007
Fellowship amounts increased from 3,000 in 2006
to 5,000 in 2007
Impact of fellowships on collaboration, linkages,
research and publications

38
4.2 Postgraduate Scholarships

For Ph.D, M.Sc or Postgraduate Diploma studies in
universities in sub-Saharan Africa
Awarded 170 partial scholarships during 2005
2007
Amounts in the range US 300 1,000
Impact of scholarships on postgraduate education,
research, publications and staff development

39
4.3 Support of Scientific Meetings

Conference on Representation Theory in Geometry
and Physics, Porto Novo, Benin (2005)
Conference and Mathematical Biology Workshop,
Nairobi, Kenya (2006)
SAMSA Conference in Windhoek, Namibia (2007)
In 2008 to support conference in Central Africa
Support by The London Mathematical Society to
enable postgraduate students attend conferences

40
4.4 Mentoring African Research in Mathematics
(MARM)

4.4.1 Main Objectives
Promote mentoring relationships between
mathematicians in other continents and
sub-Saharan African colleagues, together with
their students.
Create joint research projects and cultivate
longer-term partnerships between institutions in
Africa and those elsewhere

4.4.2 Collaborating and Funding Organisations
Collaborating Organisations
International Mathematical Union (IMU)
The London Mathematical Society (LMS)
AMMSI
Funding Organisations
The Nuffield Foundation (from 2005)
The Leverhulme Trust (from 2006)

42
4.4.3 Participation

The following universities in Africa are
currently participating
Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
University of Buea, Cameroon
Kwame Nkurumah University of Science
Technology, Ghana
Six other universities have been selected to join
Mentors (and prospective mentors) are
distinguished mathematicians interested in
colaborative links with African universities

43
5 WHAT WE HAVE LEARNT
44
5.1 Positive

Making a difference to professional careers
through Fellowships
Making a difference to academic future through
Scholarships
Enabling publications by staff and postgraduate
students
Enabling staff and institutions in different
continents to collaborate through MARM

45
5.2 Room for Improvement

Limited funds, hence small scholarship and
fellowship awards
Lack of diversification of activities
No funding of research activities
No funding to support conference attendance by
African mathematicians despite the wide interest
expressed
Looking for partners and support to continue and
extend activities

46
SUPPORTING ORGANISATIONS
47
6.1 Financial Support

Mellon Foundation
Nuffield Foundation
Leverhulme Trust
International Mathematical Union
London Mathematical Society
US National Committee on Mathematics

48
6.2 Facilities and Administrative Support

Universite Gaston Berger, Senegal
University of Botswana, Botswana
University of Ibadan, Nigeria
University of Nairobi, Kenya
University of Ngaoundere, Cameroon
University of Yaounde I, Cameroon
University of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Science Initiative Group (SIG)
African Academy of Sciences (AAS)

49
THANK YOU

website
http//www.ammsi.org

50
Partnership of INRIA with African research teams
experience and evolution.Bernard Philippe (INRIA)

CARI SARIMA experiences
Principles of the sought partnership
Some encountered difficulties and associated
questions

51
Two questions

For co-advised PhD students, how to obtain a
definition of their teaching duties compatible
with their PhD registration?
Some African master programmes only exist because
of the participation of European lecturers. Is
this acceptable to continue the support of these
programmes?

52
International Science ProgrammeUppsala University

Mathematics in Sub-Saharan Africa an overview
of Swedish cooperation,
by
Leif Abrahamsson (leifab_at_math.uu.se)
International Science Programme (ISP), at Uppsala
University.
Focus
To strengthen research and postgraduate education
in basic sciences in developing countries
International Programme in Physical Science
(IPPS) 1961
International Programme in Chemical Sciences
(IPICS) 1970
International Programme Mathematical Sciences
(IPMS) 2001
Funded by SAREC (the Swedish Agency for Research
Cooperation, about 2.5 MEuro 2008) and Uppsala
University (about 200 kEuro 2008).

53
International Science ProgrammeUppsala University

ISP university based organisation

base for collegial co-operation
recognition among foreign universities
as direct co-operation as possible
Based on scientific criteria
Flexibility
Programmes headed by senior scientists

From left to right P. Weke, J. Owino (Nairobi),
J. Mango (Makerere) and I. Mahara
(NUR).EAUMP-meeting in Kigali, March 2008.
54
International Science ProgrammeUppsala University
55
International Science ProgrammeUppsala University

ISP Supported Activites 2007
Activity Number
PhD students 181
MSc/Mphil students 332
Scholarships within Sweden 52 (251) (months)
Sholarships within rest of Europe 15 (60)
(months)
Scholarships within the Regions 55 (227)
(months)
PhD theses 12
MSc/Mphil theses 141
Publications in international Journals 140
Publications in regional/local Journals 56
Conference and Workshop contributions 256

Math students at UEM in Maputo.
56
International Science ProgrammeUppsala University
WHERE? Current ISP-supported groups and networks
GNI per Capita USD 2003 World Bank Report 2005
LD as defined in The Least Developed Countries
2002 UNCTAD/LDS/2002

AFRICA
Low Income Countries
LD Burkina Faso 300
Cameroon 640
LD Ethiopia 90
Ghana 320
Kenya 390
LD Malawi 170
LD Mali 290
LD Mauritania 430
Nigeria 320
LD Senegal 550
LD Tanzania 290
LD Uganda 240
LD Zambia 380
Zimbabwe 480

ASIA Low Income Countries LD Bangladesh
400 LD Cambodia 310 LD Lao PDR 320 Lower
Middle Income Countries Sri Lanka 930 LATIN
AMERICA Lower Middle Income Countries Ecuador 1,7
90 Peru 2,150 SWEDEN 28,840

Category-1 countries AFRICA Burkina
Faso Ethiopia Kenya Mali Mocambique Rwanda Tanzani
a Uganda Zambia ASIA Bangladesh Cambodia LATIN
AMERICA Bolivia (bilateral countries in red)
57
International Science ProgrammeUppsala University

IPMS
IPMS started in 2001. Total budget 2008 about
500 kEuro.
EAUMP (network between UoN, UDSM and Makerere
cooperation since 2002), support 2008 about 110
kEuro
- 6 PhD-students started sandwich programme in
2003 (graduates in 2008/09) and 7 more in 2007.
- A number of MSc-students have graduated (about
2 each year) regional MSc-courses.
- Regional courses and workshops in cooperation
with ICTP, and maybe with CIMPA in the future.
National University of Rwanda is to become member
of the network.
PDE, Modeling and Control (network between the
universities in Ouagadougou, Nouakchott and
Saint-Louis cooperation since 2003), support
2008 about 73 kEuro.
3 PhD-students started in 2007, and 3 more will
start this year.
A number of MSc- and local PhD-students have
already graduated.
The network runs the West African Training School
(WATS) in cooperation with ICTP, with
participating students from many West African
countries.
Ghana and Cameroon to be phased out this year, or
next. Ethiopia is to be incorporated in the
bilateral Programme from 2009.

58
International Science ProgrammeUppsala University

ISP in the future.
Support to research groups/departments only in
so-called Category-1 countries.
No new collaboration, even in Category-1
countries.
Networks are not affected by these new rules,
if Category-1 countries benefit from them.
Probably more involvement in bilateral
programmes in basic science.

Bilateral programmes via SAREC
- Total annual budget slightly less than 100
MEuro.
20 for basic science(?).
At the moment only two programmes that
involves mathematics one at Universidad Eduardo
Mondlane in Maputo, Mocambique (Swedish
coordinator at ISP), and one at the National
University of Rwanda in Butare, Rwanda
(Swedish coordinator at Linköping University).
SAREC will be replaced by a new unit within
Sida/Asdi from October 1, 2008.

(More) problems for mathematics - The content,
etc of a bilateral programme is decided by the
receiving university, and mathematics is
(usually) not a prioritised subject. Bilateral
funds are not earmarked for certain
activities (principle of ownership), which could
affect mathematics negatively.
59
Tsou Sheung Tsun, Oxford University
60
Zentralblatt
61
(No Transcript)
62
Twinned institutions as of July 2008
63
Individual Action