Law Enforcement

1
Law Enforcement
2
Law Enforcement Role and Responsibility

• Major emergency arm of the civic community
• 1st gatekeeper
• Awareness agents
• Mediators
• Public Reassurance/Marketing/PR agents

3
Law Enforcement Role and Responsibility

• Status quo maintainers
• Moral censors
• Custodians of the public conscience
• (these three components extract a heavy
  cost)
• Enforcers of state wishes
• Crime prevention would historically not be on
• this list, but it is becoming a component of 21st
• century policing in America.

4
American Law Enforcement, by the numbers

• 765,000 sworn officers
• 400,000 PSO
• 18,000 public agencies spend 100 B/year
• 17,900 state, county and city agencies
• 70 federal agencies
• 4,000 private security firms spend 60 B/year

5
Law Enforcement Role

• Wide range of debate as to the proper role of law
  enforcement in the community
• Classic law enforcement (proactive v. reactive)
• Crime preventionOrder maintenance (micro and
  macro)
• Social service providers

6
Law Enforcement Community

• Local
• City police
• City attorney
• Regulatory agencies
• County
• Sheriff
• County/District Attorney
• Regulatory agencies

7
Law Enforcement Communitycontinued

• State
• State Police/State Patrol
• Fish and Game Wardens
• Correctional officials (probation, parole, pen)
• Attorney General
• Regulatory Agencies

8
Law Enforcement Communitycontinued

• Federal (70 agencies)
• Department of the Treasury
• Internal Revenue Service
• Comptroller of the Currency
• Department of Justice
• Federal Bureau of Investigation
• U.S. Marshal Service
• Drug Enforcement Administration
• Federal Bureau of Prisons
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms

9
Law Enforcement Communitycontinued

• Department of Homeland Security
• Secret Service
• Customs and Border Protection
• Citizenship and Immigration Service
• Immigration and Customs Enforcement
• Coast Guard
• Transportation and Security Administration (TSA)
• Air Marshals
• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
• Federal Law Enforcement Training Center

10
Law Enforcement Communitycontinued

• Miscellaneous Federal Agencies
• Postal Inspectors
• National Park Service Officers
• Bureau of Indian Affairs
• Federal Probation Officers
• Supreme Court Police
• U.S. Capital Police
• U.S. Park Police
• National Art Gallery Police
• U.S. Park Police

11
Law Enforcement Communitycontinued

• Federal Prosecutors
• Federal Regulatory Agencies
• FDA
• SEC
• EPA
• FAA
• OSHA
• FDIC

12
International Law Enforcement

• Interpol (est. 1923)
• - 194 countries 760 staff 130 M annual budget
• - based in Lyon, France
• Europol (est. 1992/operations began 1998)
• - 27 EU countries plus agreements with 25
  additional countries and professional
  entities (ie., Interpol, UNODC)
• - 1,100 staff 130 M annual budget
• - based in The Hague (Netherlands)
• United Nations???

13
Private Security

• 60 Billion/year 2 million employees in multiple
  settings
• Campus police at private schools
• Retail (shoplifiting/employee theft)
• Plant security
• Corporate security (this is huge)
• Private investigation firms (4,000 of them)
• Private military contractors
• Bounty hunters/bail bond skip tracers

14
Problems with our fragmented, decentralized law
enforcement network

• Limited coordination
• Limited cooperation
• Turf battles
• Service duplication
• Crime displacement
• Inconsistent crime responses

15
History of American Policing

• Our English heritage
• Hue and Cry
• Shire Reeves
• Thief Takers
• Bow Street runners
• Thames River police
• Peterloo Massacre of 1819Metropolitan Police Act
  of 1829

16
Metropolitan Police Act of 1829

• The Duke of Wellington and Robert Peel learned
  from the past. They built the Metro Police Act
  on hundreds of years of experience
• Social service orientation (Hue and Cry)
• Trained professionals (Thames River Police)
• Paid by the State (Bow Street Runners)
• Centrally organized (Thames River Police,
  Bow Street Runners)
• No weapons (Bow Street runners)
• Life and work in same beat (Hue and Cry,
  Shire Reeves)
• Screen/background checks (Thames River
  Police)
• Police in UK still called Bobbies, after Sir
  Robert Peel

17
History of American Policing

• First police force
• Boston, 1838 (but is disbanded)
• New York City, 1844/1845
• Law Enforcement a post-Civil War phenomenon
• August Vollmer Father of professional law
  enforcement in America
• Great Depression turns national attention to
  the need for improved/more professional
  law enforcement

18
Wickersham Commission (1931)

• Get the police out of politics
• Move the police into more of a kinetic, law
  enforcement orientation (crime control)
• Train the police
• Screen applicants

19
Presidential Crime Commission (1967)

• Re-affirmed three points of the Wickersham
  Commission report
• Get the police out of politics
• Train the police
• Screen applicants
• Added an education and research component
• Rejected the kinetic, law enforcer model for a
  social service/due process orientation
• Result - a far more professionalized,
  research-oriented law enforcement

20
Public Perception of Police

• What do we want to the police to do?
• Tremendous differences across demographic lines
• Gender differences
• Racial differences
• Age differences
• Social class differences

21
Public Perception of Police

• Most positive image of the police is held by
• White
• Middle-aged (50 year of age)
• Females
• College Graduates
• Married
• White collar job
• Husband has a white collar job
• Good income
• Lives in a good neighborhood
• No police initiated contact

22
Public Perception of Policecontinued

• Most negative image of the police is held by
• Non-white
• Young (under 20 years of age)
• Male
• Grade school educated
• Single
• Manual laborer, if employed
• Lower income
• Lives in a poor neighborhood
• Some, but not extensive police initiated contact

23
Chang and Zastrow study

• Police tend to view the population in a negative
  light. In their study,
• Chang and Zastrow asked police who deserves our
  highest admiration
• 1 - me (the person filling out the
  questionnaire)
• 2 - police officers
• 3 - medical doctors
• 4 - prison security officers
• 5 - scientists
• 6 - women
• 7 - people
• 8 - businessmen
• 9 - lawyers
• 10 - college students
• 11 - politicians
• 12 - inmates

24
Factors Influencing Police Decision Making

• Characteristics of the citizen
• Behavioral
• Demographic
• Legal Characteristics of the problem
• Characteristics of the local legal culture
• Police department
• Local justice system actors
• Characteristics of officers
• Officers as a group
• Officers as individuals
• Corruption (money and power)

25
Four Aspects of Policing

• Patrolling
• Specific Services
• Staff Support
• Custodial Facilities/Jails

26
Four Aspects of PolicingPatrolling

• Time assignment logistics (cover 24 hrs/day,
  peak activity, court duty, vacations, sick
  leave)
• Transport methods (cars, foot patrol, horses,
• motorcycles, bicycles, helicopters, drones,
  boats, jeeps, snowmobiles, planes, scuba)
• Response Time
• - Citizen to police contact time delay-
  Processing time delay- Police travel time delay
  (Codes 0, 1, 2, 3)

27
Patrollingcontinued

• Patrol Assignments
• Orientation
• - Preventative patrol
• - Aggressive patrol
• Distribution
• - Vacate an area
• - Saturate an area

28
Community Policing Evolution

• Kansas City Study
• Wilson response (saturation and aggressive)
• Cordner response (saturation and social service)
• Community Policing
• CAPS project in Chicago
• Problem Solving Policing
• Community Partnership Policing

29
Police Role

• The police role in the 21st century is to be a
  part of a community team that seeks to improve
  the quality of neighborhood life in every
  context, crime being just one measure of that
  effort.

30
Four Aspects of Policingcontinued

• Special Services (investigators/detectives,
  undercover operatives, internal affairs, PSO,
  pilots, SWAT, forensic/crime scene
  specialists)
• Staff Services (communications/dispatchers,
  crime lab techs, central filing staff,
  property room management, automobile pound,
  auto mechanics, management)
• Custodial Facilities (largest part of
  Sheriffs budgets)

31
Contemporary Policing Issues

• Gender Gap women make up roughly 15 of our
  police forces and few rise to the highest ranks
  gender is not a BFOQ.
• Language Skills language skills are sorely
  needed as America becomes more diversified NYC
  officers in aggregate speak more than 100
  languages hire PSOs from all ethnic
  neighborhoods to serve as communal liaisons.

32
Contemporary Policing Issuescontinued

• Blue Curtain Phenomenon only fellow officers
  can relate and understand and be trusted
• Master Status reduction in the breadth of the
  personality
• Both need to be diminished/overcome/abolished,
  particularly as we move toward a problem
  solving/community partnership policing model

33
Neiderhoffers Cynicism Model

• Professional
• Failure
• Frustration
• Recommit Disenchantment
• Cynicism
• 
  Anomie Quit
• 
  Corrupt

34
Neiderhoffercontinued

• Education
• Training
• Union involvement
• Democratic leadership
• Selflessness
• Change the people vs. change the program

35
Future of Policing

• Proactive Social Service/Problem Solving
  Orientation
• Citizen Involvement
• Foot Patrol
• Bicycle Patrol
• Permanent Beat Assignments
• 4/10 personnel deployment
• Greater use of civil sanctions
• Greater use of creative sting operations

36
Future of Policingcontinued

• Electronic surveillance
• Street cameras (ala CCTV in the UK)
• Public transportation (buses/trains)
• Traffic light motion detectors
• Traffic photo-cops
• Open microphones on officers
• Body cameras on officers
• Cameras in all police vehicles
• Drones

37
Future of Policingcontinued

• Consolidation of rural departments
• Prosecutor/police cooperation
• Community Public Relations programs/Officer
  Friendly
• More creative computer applications
• Fingerprints
• Data management tool
• Personnel deployment (time and location)
• Probability and solvability modeling

38
Future of Policingcontinued

• Weaponry issues (control the scene vs. inflict
  permanent harm)
• Electronic weaponry (taser, stun guns,
  bullets)Tear gasRubber bullets, pepper bullets
• Robo cops and drones
• 311 and 911 phone options
• Differentiated Police Response systems
• Forensics
• Hot Spots policing

39
Future of Policingcontinued

• Enhanced public police private security
  cooperation
• Increase interaction with other involved and
  active communal awareness agents
• Probation and parole officers
• Social welfare agents
• Real estate agents
• Insurance agents
• Meter readers
• Taxi drivers (information, transport prisoners)

40
Future of Policingcontinued

• Outreach programs focused on immigrant and
  minority communities/neighborhoods
• Officers learn languages
• Translate brochures
• Translate for them in court, in hospitals
• Develop bi-lingual newsletters
• Officers serve on their community boards
• Invite them to serve on police committees/citizen
  advisory boards
• Hire them as officers and as PSOs
• Generally build communal bridges