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Fear conditioning e.g., Electric shock
associated with specific stimuli
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SCR Skin Conductance Response (sweat)
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Fear-relevant e.g., snake
Fear-irrelevant e.g., butterfly
SCR Skin Conductance Response (sweat)
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Fear-relevant e.g., snake
Fear-irrelevant e.g., butterfly
SCR Skin Conductance Response (sweat)
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SCR Skin Conductance Response (sweat)
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Same Race
Different Race
SCR Skin Conductance Response (sweat)
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Operant conditioning

• Operant Conditioning learning when an
  individuals response is followed by a
  reinforcement or punishment
• Reinforcement an event that increases the future
  probability of the response that produced it
• Positive reinforcement Reward
• Negative reinforcement Escape from punishment
• Punishment an event that suppresses the future
  probability of the response that produced it

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The response that obtained the food is reinforced
Biological needs
The drive reduction hypothesis
Several hours have passed since last meal
Increased exploratory activity
Increased drive (hunger)
Drive is reduced (reinforcement)
Find food, eat it
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Biological needs
The drive reduction hypothesis
Several hours have passed since last meal
Increased exploratory activity
Increased drive (hunger)
Drive is reduced (reinforcement)
Find food, eat it
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For instance, rats learning to work for food
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For instance, rats learning to work for food
Skinner Box
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A new experiment
Phase One
Response to central hole a way to obtain food
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A new experiment
Phase One
Phase Two
Response to central hole a way to obtain food
Better deal to the right gt Will rats figure it
out?
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Better deal to the right gt Will rats figure it
out?
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Yes, in a couple of days
Better deal to the right gt Will rats figure it
out?
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Concurrent changes in neural functioning

• growth of new neurons
• growth of new synapses
• increase or decrease in transmitter release
• increase or decrease in sensitivity to
  transmitter release
• changes in concentration of receptors

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Long Term Potentiation

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• The most widely studied neuroplastic phenomena of
  the mammalian nervous system
• Considered a fundamental mechanism underlying
  learning and memory in mammals.

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What is Long Term Potentiation?

• Enduring facilitation of synaptic transmission
• following activation of a synapse by intense
  high-frequency
• stimulation of pre-synaptic neurons
• or
• Changes in the postsynaptic neuron resulting in
• the strengthening of synaptic transmission.

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• The key event is the co-occurrence of the pre and
  post synaptic
• neurons.
• Neurons that fire together wire together
• while
• neurons that are out of sync lose their link.
• Most commonly studied in neurons from the
  hippocampus

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Biochemical Mechanisms of LTP in Hippocampus

• AMPA and NMDA receptors are involved in LTP
• glutamate receptors that open channels in
  postsynaptic neurons to let in one or more kinds
  of ions (ionotropic)
• AMPA receptors glutamate opens sodium channels

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• NMDA receptors normally blocked by magnesium but
  respond to glutamate when the neuron is
  depolarized by AMPA receptors
• calcium enters and activates protein CaMKII,
  which is necessary for LTP, and sets several
  processes in motion
• structure of AMPA receptors change, becoming more
  responsive to glutamate
• some NMDA receptors change to AMPA receptors and
  increase their responsiveness to glutamate
• dendrites may build more AMPA receptors and make
  more branches
• Once established, LTP no longer depends on NMDA
  synapses

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LTP and Behavior

• Research shows
• abnormal NMDA receptors impair learning
• more than normal NMDA receptors enhances learning
• drugs that block LTP block learning while drugs
  that facilitate LTP facilitate learning
• a lack of AMPA receptors creates deficits in LTP
  and memory

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Types of memory

• Declarative memory
• Facts (who is, what is)
• Events (when did you)
• Non-declarative memory
• Procedures (how do you)
• Conditioning (automatic responses)
• Musculature
• Emotional

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Types of memory

• Declarative memory
• Facts (who is, what is)
• Events (when did you)
• Non-declarative memory
• Procedures (how do you)
• Conditioning (automatic responses)
• Musculature
• Emotional

Medial temporal lobe
Hippocampus
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Types of memory

• Declarative memory
• Facts (who is, what is)
• Events (when did you)
• Non-declarative memory
• Procedures (how do you)
• Conditioning (automatic responses)
• Musculature
• Emotional

Medial temporal lobe
Hippocampus
Striatum
Cerebellum
Amygdala
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More types of memory

• Long-term memory
• Questions about encoding, retrieving
• Medial temporal lobe (store)
• Short-term memory
• Working memory
• (Consciousness, attention)
• Dorsolateral frontal cortex (operator)