The Nigerian State

1
The Nigerian State
2
Sovereignty, Authority, and Power

• Since 1960, neither leaders or citizens can
  decide on how the country should be governed.
• National Question- How should Nigeria be
  governed and should it remain as one nation?
• Constitutionalism The acceptance of a
  constitution as a guiding set of principles. 8
  constitutions have been written- often suspended.
• 1914- 1st constitution
• 1999- Most recent and heavily amended.

3
Legitimacy

• Government legitimacy Priority
• National Question?
• Plagued with Fragmentation tendency to fall
  apart along ethnic, regional, or religious lines.
• Moved Capital to center of the country to
  alleviate regional tensions
• Military One of the few national organizations-
  source of stability.
• Corrupt leaders General Ibrahim Babangida
  (1985-1993) and General Sani Abacha (1993-1998).
• Citizens have little faith in leaders.
• Flawed 2007 election.

4
Political and Economic Change

• Since 1960 Series of regime turnovers- From
  military coups to federal democracies.
• Parliamentary system to a Presidential System.
• All Military dictators promised to transfer power
  to civilian hands.
• Power in the hands of elites.
• Fraudulent Elections.

5
Citizens, Society, and the State

• Democratization not easy- Challenges
• Poverty 60 below poverty line.
• Large gap between rich and poor (Mexico) Low
  economic growth.
• Health Issues HIV/AIDS- 1 in 11 AIDS sufferers
  in the world lives in Nigeria .
• Literacy Below world average of 87.

6
Cleavages

• Similar to Russia- Ethnically-based civil wars.
• Chechnya Conflict and Biafran Civil War.
• Undermined legitimacy of the government.

7
Cleavages

• Ethnicity between 250-400 ethnic groups
  variety of religions, and languages. Live in
  separate enclaves.
• Religion China/Russia communism controlled
  ethnic tensions with a unifying ideology.
  Nigeria has no unifying ideology. Sharia law?
• Region/north vs. south 1955- 3
  regions/Christians in the south, Muslins in the
  north.
• Urban/rural differences Political organizations
  and interest groups found in cities, greater
  participation.
• Social class Social division runs deep. Wealthy
  own resources and control the government.

8
Patron-Clientelism(Perbendalism)

• Prebendalism Max Weber personalized system of
  rule in which all public offices are treated as
  personal fiefdoms.
• Rural areas.
• Fosters corruption.

9
Civil Society and Voting Behavior

• 1999 Civil society has strengthened.
• Trade unions and professional organizations.
• National Union for petroleum and Gas workers
  (NUPENG).
• 1959 First national elections.
• Many elections canceled or postponed.
• Numerous political parties form around
  charismatic figure (no party loyalty).
• 1999 Local, state and national elections held,
  many were fraudulent- participant rates
  unreliable.

10
Attitudes Toward Government

• Most distrust government.
• General Abacha.
• Skeptical about democracy.
• Do not believe elections are fair.
• Changing? Nigerian identity?

11
Protests, Participation, and Social Movements

• Democracy since 1999 Brought ethnic-based and
  religious movements to address grievances.
• International oil companies- targets. (Niger
  Delta)
• Challenge for new president Yar Adua .

12
Linkage Institutions

• Political Parties Regionally and Ethnically
  based. Factionalism led to multiparty system
• The Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) 1998
  Supported Olusegun Obasanjo (Christian) and Umaru
  Yar Adua (Muslim). Gained majority of National
  Assembly.
• All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP) Candidate in
  2003 won 23, 19 in 2007. (Buhari)
• Action Congress (AC) Merged in 2006 with many
  minor parties. 2007 won 7 (Abubakar)
• Trend Parties drawing to many ethnic groups
  elections still fraudulent and violent-difficult
  to claim legitimacy.

13
Elections and Electoral Procedures

• Citizens vote on 3 levels local, state, and
  national
• National Elections President, representatives
  to the House of Representatives, and senators
  from their states
• Presidential elections Candidate must receive an
  outright majority, or a second election may take
  place.
• Legislative elections Senate has 109 seats, 3
  from each of the 36 states and one from the
  federal capital. Elected by direct popular vote.
  360 representatives are elected from single
  member districts by plurality vote. No run-offs.
  Regional representation with ethnicities trying
  to form coalitions. Weak.

14
Elections and Electoral Procedures

• Election Fraud
• Sustained 3 popular elections in a row.
• 2003 election Observers saw ballot boxes being
  vandalized, stolen, and stuffed with fraudulent
  votes. 20 deaths.
• Independent National Electoral Commission
  disqualified 6 million names.
• 2007 election was worse Many ballots had only
  symbols, not names, ballot-box theft, long delays
  in the delivery of ballots and a shortage of
  ballots. Unused ballots were marked and stuffed.
  200 deaths.

15
Interest Groups

• Play an important role.
• Based on religion. (Christian Association of
  Nigeria)
• Labor Unions Independent and Powerful before
  1980s. Corporatism or government approved
  interest groups, limited their power. 2007
  Nigeria Labor Congress organized a strike of city
  workers against raising oil prices for
  Nigerians. (subsidized)
• Student Groups.
• Populist Groups Human Rights groups
• Business Interests Work in collaboration with
  Military leaders. Corrupt. Some businesses have
  operated outside the government influence in the
  private sector.

16
Mass Media

• Well-developed , independent press. (in
  comparison to other developing nations)
• Reflect ethnic/regional divisions.
• Most outspoken newspapers in the south.
• Radio is the main source of information.
• Newspapers and TV in the cities.
• All 36 states run their own radio stations.

17
Political Institutions Federal, Presidential
Model

• Executive Branch Powerful President
• Popularly elected.
• Head of state and government.
• 4 year terms, maximum of two terms.
• Oversees day to day operations of the government
  and the military.
• Appoints government ministers (after confirmation
  of the Senate) and assure that they come from
  all 36 states. The Federal Executive Committee
  (president and ministers) assures that enacted
  laws are properly implemented throughout the
  country.
• The VP assists the president in all tasks and is
  nominated by the presidential candidate as his
  running mate.

18
The Legislature

• National Assembly Bicameral.
• Senate 109 members 3 reps from each state and
  one from the Federal Territory, Abuja.
• House of Representatives 360 members.
• Members from both houses serve 4 year terms and
  are popularly elected.
• Pass laws for the assent by the president.
• Either house may originate legislation, but must
  pass both houses and the president before law is
  official.
• Low representation of women 6.4 in the House
  and 3.7 in the Senate.
• Only recently, checks the power of the president.
  

19
The Judicial Branch

• Interprets the laws in accordance with the
  constitution.
• Judicial Review exists in theory.
• Single unified federal and state court system.
• Sharia courts may coexist at the state level
  Complicates the system.
• Supreme Court Highest Court.
• Election Tribunals.
• Supreme Court-Highest Court in the land.
• Court of Appeals.

20
State/Local Governments

• All 36 states have a popularly elected governor
  that serves 4 year terms
• Unicameral State House Assembly
• Representatives are elected for 4 year terms from
  local government areas
• The number of House Assembly Members in each
  state is comprised of 3 times the number of seats
  it has in the House of Representatives
• 774 Local governments-each comprising of a
  chairman and elected councilors

21
The Military

• Seen as a disciplined organization with the
  capacity to make decisions efficiently and
  effectively.
• By becoming active in political affairs, the
  military lost its credibility as a temporary,
  objective organization that keeps order and
  brings stability
• National character-all regions/ethnic groups
• The best and brightest join (Muslims especially)
• Generals had the ability to keep control of the
  government
• Fragile Democracy

22
The Bureaucracy

• Source of employment
• Replaced British and Indians after Independence
• Mostly from the South
• Oil revenues allowed increase in bureaucracy
• Access to oil revenues, coupled with political
  instability led to corruption. Trend difficult
  to reverse.
• Para-statals Many companies owned by the
  Nigerian government (provide social and welfare
  services, utilities) and are not efficient.
• Corporatism occurs when the government chooses
  para-statals to provide political input. State
  controls private interests as well. Disband the
  system in order for democracy to survive?

23
Public Policy

• Military rule Top-down policymaking process.
• Power concentrated in the presidency.
• Input comes to the president through patron
  clientelism.
• Loyalty pyramid. Receive spoils.
• Rule based on self-interest.
• Began in colonial times.
• Must shift to ideology based on the welfare of
  the people.

24
Economic Issues

• Loyalty Pyramids squandered Nigerias wealth
• Dependent upon oil reserves- Feeds corrupt system
• At Independence-Self Sufficient food supply,
  developed transportation system, produced and
  exported a variety of agricultural products.
• 1970s, developed large scale industries, did not
  diversify the economy nor maintain infrastructure
• 2001, implemented revenue sharing by pooling oil
  revenues and dispersing those revenues throughout
  the country. Lack of faith in the government
  caused widespread protests in the south. Wasnt
  implemented.

25
Structural Adjustment

• Oil prices plummet in the 1980s, Nigeria
  unprepared. (Mexico) Owed large sums to IMF and
  World Bank
• Structural Adjustment Shock Treatment- Tried to
  diversify the economy, reduce government
  spending, privatize para-statals
• Terms of IMF and World Bank difficult to
  implement
• Huge national debt

26
Oil

• State Role is to control the nations revenues
  and in spending earnings, or rents, which come
  from oil.
• Rent-seeking behavior Communities, individuals,
  and groups compete for profits.
• All controlled by the government.
• Most Nigerians do not have access to rents, and
  participate in the informal economy (unreported
  incomes from small-scale trade and subsistence
  farming)

27
Federalism

• Positive impact.
• Power is shared.
• Greater political participation.
• Backed by the constitution
• President must receive 25 of the vote in 2/3 of
  the regions
• Negative Promote corruption, Rent-seeking
  behavior

28
Sings of Democratization

• Some checks and balances between government
  branches Legislature rejected Obasanjos
  attempt to change the constitution to allow him
  to run for a third term.
• Some independent decisions in the courts
  Abubakar was allowed to run for president.
• Revival of civil society.
• Independent media.
• A peaceful succession of power Two civilians in
  a row
• Improving Freedom House Scores Currently,
  partly free.

29
Major Public policy Challenges

1. Economic and Political Reform
2. Oil and the Environment
3. Ethnic/Religious Tensions and Human Rights
4. Civil Military Relations
5. HIV/AIDS
6. Regional Instability