Detecting the Unidentified Victims: Recognized Versus Unrecognized Child Sexual Abuse Sarah DeGue1, John Clemmons1, David DiLillo1, and Issac Martinez2 University of Nebraska-Lincoln1 Family Violence and Injury Lab Our Lady of the Lake University2

1

Gender Comparison in Prediction of Adolescents
Sense of Inadequacy ??? ? ??? University of
Nebraska-Lincoln

Introduction
Results
A series of regression analyses were run to
examine the relationship between standardized
score of the sense of inadequacy measure of the
Behavioral Assessment System for
Children-Self-Report for adolescents (BASC-soi)
and the BASC standardized scores for social
stress (BASC-ss), relationship with parents
(BASC-rwp), interpersonal relations (BASC-ir) and
self-esteem (BASC-se) and total score from the
Child Depression Inventory (CDI), total score
from the Hopelessness Scale for Children (HSC),
age, and ethnicity (0Caucasian, 1other) and
compare the models derived from males and
females. Table 1 shows the univariate statistics
for the two genders. In the male sample, as
hypothesized BASC-relationship with parents,
interpersonal relations and self-esteem scores
had a negative correlation with BASC-sense of
inadequacy while BASC-social stress, Child
Depression Inventory total score and Hopelessness
Scale for Children total score were positively
and significantly correlated with the criterion.
Furthermore, Ethnicity showed no significant
correlation with sense of inadequacy. Contrary
to the hypothesis however, age was also not
significantly correlated with sense of
inadequacy. In the female sample, as hypothesized
BASC-interpersonal relations and self-esteem were
negatively correlated with the criterion however,
contrary to the hypothesis BASC-relationship with
parents did not show a significant correlation.
As in the male sample, the hypothesis was
supported with BASC-social stress, CDI total
score and HSC total score having positive and
significant correlations with the criterion.
Also similar to the male sample the hypothesis
that age would be significantly and positively
correlated with the dependent variable was not
supported. However, Ethnicity did not show a
significant correlation with the criterion as
hypothesized. Table 2 shows the correlations for
the two populations. Resulting from multiple
regression analyses, the male model (R².631,
(8,44)9.407, plt.001) resulted in BASC-social
stress and CDI total score showing significant
regression weights with BASC-social stress having
slightly more of a contribution to the model
(based on inspection of the Beta weights).
BASC-relationship with parents, interpersonal
relations, self-esteem, HSC total score, age and
ethnicity did not show significant regression
weights and therefore did not contribute to the
model. For the female model (R².559,
(8,38)6.032, plt.001) BASC-social stress is the
only predictor with a significant regression
weight contributing to the model.
BASC-relationship with parents,
BASC-interpersonal relations, BASC-self-esteem,
CDI total score, HSC total score, age and
ethnicity did not show significant regression
weights and therefore did not contribute to the
model. Table 3 shows the regression weights for
the two populations. Comparison of the fit of
the male model and female model was conducted
using Fishers Z-test. As hypothesized, no
significant difference between the respective R²
values was found, Z.544 (Z critical1.96,
pgt.05). Retaining the hypothesis it was
concluded that the models work equally well at
predicting sense of inadequacy for adolescents.
A comparison of the structure of the two models
was also performed using Hotellings t/Steigers
Z, applying the male model to the data from the
female model and comparing the resulting
crossed R with the direct R originally
obtained from this group. The direct model
resulted in R².630 and the indirect model
R².550 with a crossed R².870. As hypothesized
the structure of the models were not
significantly different, Z1.64, t1.68, pgt.05,
indicating that the male model and female model
show no significant differences in structure when
predicting sense of inadequacy for
adolescents. Combining the two populations to
form a full model including both males and
females resulted in statistics fairly similar to
those previously reported. As hypothesized,
BASC-relationship with parents, interpersonal
relations and self-esteem are significantly and
negatively correlated with the dependent variable
while BASC-social stress, CDI total score and HSC
total score are positively and significantly
correlated with the dependent variable. Also, as
hypothesized, ethnicity was not significantly
correlated with sense of inadequacy. Finally,
contrary to the hypothesis, age was not
significantly correlated with sense of
inadequacy. Table 4 shows the simple
correlations for the full model. Multiple
regression analyses of the full model show an
R².564, F(8,91)14.699, plt.001. BASC-social
stress and CDI total score are the only two
contributing predictors each with a positive
regression weight with BASC-social stress
contributing slightly more to the model than CDI
(based on Beta weight). Table 5 shows the
multiple regression weights for the full model.
Table 1 Univariate Statistics Males (N85) and
Females (N83) Male Female Mean Std
Mean Std BASC-soi 57.39 11.37 58.74 12.29
BASC-rwp 39.16 13.35 36.93 13.39 BASC-ir 44
.62 11.82 47.07 12.85 BASC-ss 55.05 10.10
58.82 11.01 BASC-se 47.83 10.20 45.32 12.42
CDI total 54.21 12.00 64.55 16.50 HSC
total 5.66 4.50 5.67 4.40 Age 14.19 1.70
14.60 1.80 Eth_2 .0941 .293 .253 .437
For decades researchers have focused on topics
associated with or similar to depression,
hopelessness and self-esteem. The breadth of
research on this topic however, has focused
mainly on adults rather than a younger population
(DAttilio, Campbell, Lubold, Jacobson, 1992
Haatainen, Tanskanen, Kylma, Honkalampi, Koivuma
Honkanen, Hintikka, Viinamaki, 2004 Helsel
Matson, 1984 Morano Cisler, 1993). Many of
these studies use measures of assessment which
are generally administered to the subject by the
researcher or practitioner instead of using a
self-report method as well. Furthermore, many
researchers have discovered that variables such
as self-esteem, depression and hopelessness are
correlated with each other and it seemed
necessary not to overlook sense of inadequacy as
a possible addition to this group of
correlations. Overall, the research which has
been conducted with this and similar populations
have many similarities in terms of correlated
variables and expected outcomes. For purposes
of this study the previously mentioned topics
such as depression, hopelessness and self-esteem
were studied in combination with the dependent
variable, sense of inadequacy. While associated
with such variables as self-esteem, sense of
inadequacy has been widely studied in recent
research. Sense of inadequacy may be related to
such things as self-esteem, self-criticizing
behaviors, social and familial support and
hopelessness. Negative emotions in regard to
these factors may lead to such behavioral or
emotional problems such as suicide, moderate to
severe depression and self-harming or criticizing
behaviors (DAttilio, et al., 1992 Haatainen,
K., 2004 Gilbert, Clarke, Hempel, Miles, Irons,
2004 Kashani, Dandoy, Vaidya, Soltvs, 1990
Morano Cisler, 1993). Therefore sense of
inadequacy was studied in association with
factors that have been shown to be related to
these behavioral problems in hopes of determining
ways to understand adolescent sense of inadequacy
and its possible effects. Many researchers have
found differences among adolescents across age
groups. For example, Haatainen et al. (2004)
found that hopelessness tended to increase with
age but stayed very similar across gender. The
same was found in a study involving the Child
Depression Inventory by Hesel and Matson (1984),
where gender differences were not found however
significant differences were found across age
with older children tending to score higher on
the measure of depression than younger children.
In a study conducted by Morano and Cisler
(1993), the authors reported that in terms of
prediction of healthy adjustment, social and
familial support was very important for both
genders and is found to be a guard against
suicide potential. In another study involving
suicide potential in adolescents the authors
found that those adolescents who had less social
support and fewer social contacts were more
likely to be at risk for suicide (DAttilio et
al., 1992). Within the current study, social
support and sense of inadequacy have been found
to be related as well which may have relevance in
the prediction of suicide potential. Also in
close relation to the current study, Gilbert et
al. (2004, p. 32) in their study on forms, styles
and reasons for criticizing in females found that
self-disparagement, marked by feelings of
personal inadequacy, is strongly associated with
life-time risk of depression. These previous
findings are generally well associated with the
current study and show the need to study the
relationship between sense of inadequacy and
adolescents in order to help determine if
differences should be made in terms of future
assessment and treatment of adolescents. With
adolescence being a time of life where emotions
and feelings about the self may be confusing it
also seems important to focus on measures which
are self-report in hopes of obtaining the
adolescents true feelings or emotions involving
the questions being asked. By using self report
measures to obtain standardized scores for
measures of social stress, relationships with
parents, self-esteem, interpersonal relations,
depression and hopelessness in adolescents it was
then hypothesized that social stress, depression
and hopelessness would be significantly and
positively correlated with the dependent variable
for both genders. It was also hypothesized that
relationships with parents, self-esteem and
interpersonal relations would be significantly
and negatively correlated with the dependent
variable for both genders. Thirdly, it was
hypothesized that age would be positively and
significantly correlated with sense of inadequacy
for both genders. Fourth, it was hypothesized
that ethnicity would have no significant
correlation with the dependent variable. Fifth,
it was hypothesized that the fit and structure of
the male and female models would be similar.
Finally, when combining the two populations to
form a full model it was hypothesized that
similar results would be found among the full
model
Table 2 Simple Correlations
r with criterion Males
Females BASC-rwp -.276 -.237 BASC-ir
-.282 -.458 BASC-ss .646 .701 BASC-
se -.539 -.482 CDI total .627 .696
HSC total .565 .491 Age -.205 -.0
91 Eth 2 -.163 .113 0Caucasion,
1other plt.05 plt.01 plt.001
Table 3 Multiple Regression Analyses Males
Females b B b
B BASC-rwp .128 .140 .092
.102 BASC-ir .156 .145 -.091
-.101 BASC-ss .503 .448
.436 .384 BASC-se
-.113 -.102 .128 -.133 CDI
total .393 .383 .178
.246 HSC total .289 .110 .255
.092 Age -.642 -.088 .626
.086 Eth 2 -2.283 -.058
2.110 .085______ 0Caucasian,
1other plt.05 plt.01 plt.001

Method
Participants A sample of 171 adolescents was used
for purposes of these analyses and separated by
gender resulting in 85 males and 83 females (M
age14.39, SD1.785). The participants were
selected from a current database in cooperation
with a Mid-western psychiatric facility. The
sample was binarized for ethnicity resulting in
81.3 of the population reported as Caucasian
(coded0) and 18.7 reported as other (coded1).
Measures BASC-SRPA. Participants completed
the Behavioral Assessment System for
Children-Self-Report Personality-Adolescent
(Reynolds Kamphaus, 1992). Included in this
assessment are 117 questions to which
participants responded either true or false in an
attempt to give the most accurate report of their
feelings or emotions in relation to the question
asked. ( ADD EXAMPLE QUESTIONS). Each question
is respectively grouped (example social stress),
scored and standardized. Child Depression
Inventory (CDI). Additionally, participants
completed the Child Depression Inventory
(Kovacs,1982) consisting of 27 groups of
questions. Each group consists of three
contrasting sentences (sample item I like being
with people, I do not like being with people many
times, I do not want to be with people at all)
with each sentence is awarded either zero, one or
two points. The adolescent then chose which
sentence best describes them in terms of their
feelings and ideas within the last two weeks. A
raw total was then determined and scaled to find
a total t-score. Hopelessness Scale for Children
(HSC). The participants also completed the
Hopelessness Scale for Children (Kazdin, French,
Unis, Esveldt-Dawson, Sherick, 1983). The
assessment consists of 17 statements to which the
adolescents answered either true or false to
convey whether the statement is or is not
representative of them (sample item I have
enough time to finish the things I really want to
do). Each sentence is scored with either one or
zero points with total scores of or exceeding
seven showing significant hopelessness or
negative expectations about the
future. Procedures Participants were
adolescents admitted to a Mid-western psychiatric
facility and administered multiple assessments
for purposes of diagnoses. Add more here if you
have it.
Discussion
It was the explicit purpose of this study to
determine if there are gender similarities among
adolescents in terms of what contributes to their
sense of inadequacy when using measures of
self-report. It was hypothesized that among both
genders standardized score for social stress and
total score on the Child Depression Inventory,
Hopelessness Scale for Children and age would be
significantly and positively correlated with
sense of inadequacy while standardized score for
relationships with parents, self-esteem and
interpersonal relations would be significantly
and negatively correlated. It was also
hypothesized that ethnicity would have no
significant correlation with the dependent
variable. The hypotheses were supported with the
exception of age which did not show a significant
correlation with sense of inadequacy.
Furthermore, it was hypothesized that there would
be no important differences between the male and
female models in terms of comparison of fit and
structure. The data supported these hypotheses
resulting in models of prediction that work
equally well at predicting sense of inadequacy
and show no significant differences in structure.
The results of this study are similar to those
previously studied in that gender differences
were not apparent. One notable difference
between previous research and the current study
is that of findings concerning age. There have
been differences across age groups in terms of
levels of hopelessness and scores on depression
inventories however these differences were not
noted in this research (Haatainen et al., 2004
Helsel Matson, 1984). In future work and
research with adolescents it seems necessary to
take into account that many of the measures used
here to predict sense of inadequacy are
correlated and may be influential in aiding
prediction of other related constructs. Sense of
inadequacy has been shown to be correlated with
such constructs as depression, hopelessness and
social stress and these constructs have been
shown to be related with suicide potential,
moderate to severe depression and self-harming or
criticizing behaviors (DAttilio et al., 1992
Haatainen et al., 2004 Gilbert, et al., 2004
Kashani, et al., 1990 Morano Cisler, 1993).
Therefore, in future work with adolescents
including sense of inadequacy as a factor in the
prediction of some behavioral disorders may be
beneficial to their treatment and
diagnoses. Limitations of the research conducted
here and in previous studies are the populations
studied, which tend to be adolescents of
inpatient psychiatric facilities who may already
be presenting some other form of behavioral
disturbance or disorder. It may be necessary to
try and further replicate these findings across a
sample of adolescents who either are or are not
presenting some type of disorder at the time of
assessment. A larger sample size would surely be
beneficial as well in future replication. The
sample selected for this study is also comprised
of mainly Caucasian adolescents. Therefore, the
results of this study may not be completely
representative of other ethnicities warranting
replication.
Table 4 Full Model Multiple Regression
Analyses b B BASC-rwp .110 .
121 BASC-ir .031 .032 BASC-ss .472
.428 BASC-se -.171 -.167 CDI
total .183 .238 HSC total .392 .145 Ag
e -.093 -.013 Eth 2 -.682 -.024
0Caucasian, 1other plt.05 plt.01 plt.001