Basic Principles of Animal Form

1
Basic Principles of Animal Form Function

• Chapter 40
• Jay Swan
• Cincinnati, Ohio

2
Anatomy Physiology

• Anatomy
• Biological form
• Physiology
• Biological function
• Why do animals have such various appearances when
  they have such similar demands placed on them?

3
Physical constraints

• Water
• Shapes of animals that are swimmers
• Why streamlined?
• Size
• Size of skeleton
• Size of muscles
• Relation to speed of organism

4
Exchange with the environment

• Rate of exchange proportional to surface area
• Amount of materials that must be exchanged is
  proportional to volume
• Differences in unicellular vs. multicellular
  organisms
• Interstitial fluid

5
Fig. 40-4
External environment
CO2
Food
O2
Mouth
Animal body
Respiratory system
Blood
50 µm
0.5 cm
Lung tissue
Nutrients
Cells
Heart
Circulatory system
10 µm
Interstitial fluid
Digestive system
Excretory system
Lining of small intestine
Kidney tubules
Anus
Metabolic waste products (nitrogenous waste)
Unabsorbed matter (feces)
6
Hierarchical Organization

• Cells

7
Hierarchical Organization

• Cells
• Tissues

8
Hierarchical Organization

• Cells
• Tissues
• Organs

9
Hierarchical Organization

• Cells
• Tissues
• Organs
• Organ System
• Digestive Circulatory Respiratory
• Immune Excretory Endocrine
• Reproductive Nervous Skeletal
• Muscular Integumentary

10
Hierarchical Organization

• Cells
• Tissues
• Organs
• Organ System
• Digestive Circulatory Respiratory
• Immune Excretory Endocrine
• Reproductive Nervous Skeletal
• Muscular Integumentary
• Organism

11
Epithelial Tissue

• Sheets of tightly packed cells
• Cells joined tightly together with little
  material between them
• Functions
• Protection
• Absorption or secretion of chemicals
• Lining of organs
• Free surface
• Exposed to air or fluid
• Basement membrane
• Extracellular matrix that cells at base of
  barrier are attached

12
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Cuboidal epithelium
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Simple columnar epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium
Simple squamous epithelium
13
Connective Tissue

• Cells spread out scattered through extracellular
  matrix
• Substances secreted by connective tissue cells
• Web of fibers embedded in foundation
• Structure
• Protein
• Function
• Bind and support other cells
• Fibroblasts
• Secrete protein of extracellular fibers
• Macrophages
• Engulf bacteria dead cells
• Defense

14
Connective Tissue
Fig. 40-5c
Connective Tissue
Collagenous fiber
Chondrocytes
Loose connective tissue
Cartilage
120 µm
100 µm
Elastic fiber
Chondroitin sulfate
Nuclei
Fat droplets
Fibrous connective tissue
Adipose tissue
150 µm
30 µm
Osteon
White blood cells
Bone
Blood
55 µm
700 µm
Red blood cells
Central canal
Plasma
15
Muscle Tissue

• Contract when stimulated
• Contractile proteins
• Actin myosin
• Skeletal muscle
• Voluntary muscle
• Striated
• Cardiac muscle
• Heart
• Striated, intercalated discs
• Involuntary
• Smooth muscle
• No striations
• Lines walls of organs
• Involuntary

16
Fig. 40-5j
Muscle Tissue
Multiple nuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
Skeletal muscle
Nucleus
Intercalated disk
100 µm
50 µm
Cardiac muscle
Nucleus
Smooth muscle
Muscle fibers
25 µm
17
Nervous Tissue

• Receives stimulus and transmits signals
• Glial cells
• Nourish, insulate, replenish neurons
• Neuron
• Nerve cell
• Cell body with 2 or more extensions
• Axons
• Transmit signals
• Dendrites
• Receive signals

18
Fig. 40-5n
Nervous Tissue
40 µm
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Glial cells
Neuron
Axons
Blood vessel
15 µm
19
Coordination and Control in Animals

• Endocrine System
• Signaling molecules in bloodstream
• Coordinates gradual changes
• Growth, development, reproduction, digestion
• Hormones
• Only picked up by cells with the correct
  receptors
• Slow acting but long lasting

20
Coordination and Control in Animals

• Endocrine System
• Signaling molecules in bloodstream
• Coordinates gradual changes
• Growth, development, reproduction, digestion
• Hormones
• Only picked up by cells with the correct
  receptors
• Slow acting but long lasting
• Nervous System
• Impulse travels along target cell only
• Transmission is very fast and short lasting
• Immediate response
• Locomotion, behavior

21
Homeostasis

• Negative feedback
• Change in environment triggers control mechanism
  to turn off stimulus
• Prevent small changes to become big problems
• Most body processes
• Sweating

22
Homeostasis

• Negative feedback
• Change in environment triggers control mechanism
  to turn off stimulus
• Prevent small changes to become big problems
• Most body processes
• Sweating
• Positive feedback
• Change in environment triggers control mechanism
  to increase stimulus
• Childbirth

23
Fig. 40-UN1
Homeostasis
Response/effector
Stimulus Perturbation/stress
Control center
Sensor/receptor
24
Thermoregulation

• Five general adaptations help animals
  thermoregulate
• Insulation
• Circulatory adaptations
• Cooling by evaporative heat loss
• Behavioral responses
• Adjusting metabolic heat production

25
Fig. 40-12
Canada goose
Bottlenose dolphin
Blood flow
Vein
Artery
Vein
Artery
33º
35ºC
27º
30º
20º
18º
10º
9º
26
Metabolic Rate

• Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
• Measured in calories or Joules
• Calculated heat loss, O2 consumed, CO2
  produced, food consumption

27
Metabolic Rate

• Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
• Measured in calories or Joules
• Calculated heat loss, O2 consumed, CO2
  produced, food consumption
• Endothermic
• Warm-blooded
• Heat generated by metabolism
• Requires lots of energy

28
Metabolic Rate

• Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
• Measured in calories or Joules
• Calculated heat loss, O2 consumed, CO2
  produced, food consumption
• Endothermic
• Warm-blooded
• Heat generated by metabolism
• Requires lots of energy
• Exothermic
• Cold-blooded
• Requires less energy
• Incapable of intense activity for long period of
  time

29
Fig. 40-17
Organic molecules in food
External environment
Animal body
Digestion and absorption
Heat
Energy lost in feces
Nutrient molecules in body cells
Energy lost in nitrogenous waste
Carbon skeletons
Cellular respiration
Heat
ATP
Biosynthesis
Cellular work
Heat
Heat
30
Fig. 40-20
Endotherms
Ectotherm
800,000
Reproduction
Thermoregulation
Basal (standard) metabolism
Growth
Activity
Annual energy expenditure (kcal/hr)
340,000
8,000
4,000
60-kg female human from temperate climate
4-kg male Adélie penguin from Antarctica
(brooding)
0.025-kg female deer mouse from temperate North
America
4-kg female eastern indigo snake
31
Metabolic rate (cont)

• Metabolic rate is inversely proportional to body
  size
• Basal metabolic rate
• Metabolic rate of nongrowing endotherm at rest,
  empty stomach, no stress
• Human average 1600 1800 kCal per day for
  males 1300-1500 kCal per day for females
• Standard metabolic rate
• Metabolic rate of resting, fasting, non-stressed
  ectotherm
• Alligator 60 kCal per day

32
Metabolic Rate (cont)

• Maximum metabolic rate peak activity times
• Maximum rate inversely proportional to duration
  of activity
• Sustained activity depends on ATP supply and
  respiration rate
• Age, sex, size, temperature, quality quantity
  of food, activity level, oxygen availability,
  hormonal balance, time of day all affect
  metabolic rate

33
Fig. 40-19
103
Elephant
Horse
102
Human
Sheep
10
BMR (L O2/hr) (Iog scale)
Dog
Cat
1
Rat
101
Ground squirrel
Shrew
Mouse
Harvest mouse
102
103
102
101
10
1
102
103
Body mass (kg) (log scale)
(a) Relationship of BMR to body size
8
Shrew
7
6
5
BMR (L O2/hr) (per kg)
4
Harvest mouse
3
Mouse
Sheep
2
Rat
Human
Elephant
Cat
1
Dog
Horse
Ground squirrel
0
103
102
102
103
101
1
10
Body mass (kg) (log scale)
(b) Relationship of BMR per kilogram of body mass
to body size