Biology Final Exam Review

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Biology Final Exam Review
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Microscopes

• Total Magnification eyepiece X objective lens
• Eyepiece is always 10x
• If your objective lens is 40x, then total
  magnification 10x X 40x, which is 400x.

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pH

• The measure of how acidic or basic a substance
  is.
• pH lt 7 is acidic (fruit juice, soda, stomach
  acid).
• pH 7 is neutral (water).
• pH gt 7 is basic (household cleaners).

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Scientific Method

• Parts of an Experiment
• Independent Variable whatever you are testing
  for goes on X-axis
• Dependent Variable whatever you are observing,
  counting, or measuring at the end goes on y-axis
• Control whatever is normal, whatever one you
  leave alone
• Constants the things that are the same in all
  groups.
• Trials the number of times you run an
  experiment.

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Why Are Cells So Small?

• A cell takes in materials via its cell membrane.
  Therefore, the larger the surface area of the
  cell membrane, the more efficiently it can take
  in nutrients.
• However, if a cell gets too big its volume grows
  faster than its surface area and it wont be
  able to take in enough nutrients or get rid of
  enough waste to survive.

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Are Viruses Alive?

• NO!!! They are not made of cells!!!
• This is why antibiotics will not help you if you
  are sick because of a virus. You cant kill
  something that was never alive in the first
  place.
• Antibiotics are for illnesses caused by bacteria,
  NOT viruses!

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Homeostasis

• Maintaining a constant internal environment
  regardless of the external environment.
• Usually it refers to maintaining a constant
  temperature and pH.

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Energy

• The source of energy for most living things is
  the SUN!!!
• The SUN is the catalyst for photosynthesis.
  (plants, algae, and certain bacteria)
• 6CO2 6H2O C6H12O6 6O2
• Carbon Dioxide and Water in the presence of
  sunlight yields Glucose and Oxygen.
• The products of photosynthesis are the reactants
  for cellular respiration.
• C6H12O6 6O2 6CO2 6H2O ATP
• ALL LIVING THINGS DO CELLULAR RESPIRATION!!!
• The energy in all living things is ATP.

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Cells Animal VS. Plant
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Things in Common

• Both animal plant cells have the following main
  organelles
• Nucleus holds DNA
• Mitochondria cellular respiration
• Ribosomes makes proteins
• Cell Membrane semi-permeable

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How Are Plant Cells Different?

• Usually rectangular in shape
• Cell Wall gives plants their shape
• Chloroplasts - photosynthesis
• Extremely large vacuoles storing water

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Mitosis VS. Meiosis

• When one cell divides to become two.
• Used for growth and repair.
• The two daughter cells maintain the same number
  of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• Humans normally have 46 chromosomes 47 if you
  have Downs Syndrome.

• When one cell divides to become four. In females,
  three of the cells die, leaving only one viable
  cell.
• Used for making gametes (sperm eggs)
• The four daughter cells have half as many
  chromosomes as the parent cell.
• Humans normally have 23 chromosomes in their
  gametes.

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Diffusion

• When a substance moves into or out of a cell from
  a high concentration to a low concentration.
• When that substance is water, we call it osmosis.

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Enzymes

• Type of protein.
• Act as a catalyst in living things to speed up
  chemical reactions. (ex. digestion)
• Whatever the enzyme is breaking down is called
  the substrate, and must fit with it like a puzzle
  piece.
• During the reaction, the substrate is broken
  down, but the enzyme retains its shape and can be
  used again.
• Require very specific temperature and pH.
• If the temperature or pH is too high or too low,
  the reaction will slow down!!!

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Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates
• Give your body energy
• Building blocks are monosaccharides
• Mono glucose
• Di sugar
• Poly starch, fiber
• Any food that grows from the ground
• Proteins
• Build muscle and help you heal
• Building blocks are amino acids
• Any food that comes from an animal soy
• Lipids
• Make up cell membranes insulation stores energy
• Building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol
• Animal fat, butter, oils
• Nucleic Acids
• Stores genetic information
• Building blocks are nucleotides
• DNA RNA

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Genetics

• DNA
• Double stranded (double helix)
• Nitrogenous bases are Cytosine, Guanine, Adenine,
  Thymine
• C G
• A T
• Cannot leave the nucleus.

• RNA
• Single stranded
• Nitrogenous bases are Cytosine, Guanine, Adenine,
  Urasil
• C G
• A U
• Leaves the nucleus.

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How Does DNA Work?

• DNA codes for proteins (amino acids). Proteins
  are expressed as traits.
• Know how to read the amino acid chart!

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Genetics

• Genotype
• A type of gene.
• Represented by two alleles (BB, Bb, bb)
• BB homozygous dominant
• Bb heterozygous
• Bb homozygous recessive

• Phenotype
• The physical trait (brown hair, blue eyes,
  lactose intolerant, etc.)

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Sex-Linked Traits

• Only on the X chromosome.
• Female XX Male XY
• Females are less likely to be affected because
  they have a back-up X, males do not.
• Females can be carriers if they have the allele
  on only one X. This means that the female does
  not have the trait herself, but can still pass it
  on to her children.

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CoDominance Blood Types

• Genotypes
• AA or AO
• BB or BO
• AB
• OO

• Phenotypes
• A
• B
• AB
• O

Blood type O is the universal donor. This means
that regardless of what blood type you have, your
body will accept O type blood. Blood type AB is
the universal receiver. This means that if you
have AB blood, they can give you any blood type
and your body will accept it.
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Pedigrees
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Pedigrees

• Traces the history of a trait through a family.
• Circles females
• Squares males
• Colored in affected (they have the trait)
• Connecting Line they have children together

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Gel Electrophoresis

• A way to test DNA to determine evolutionary
  relatedness, paternity, or guilt/innocence in
  instances of crime.
• The bands represent fragments of DNA.
• For paternity, half the DNA bands must match the
  childs DNA bands.
• To determine guilt in a court of law, the
  evidence DNA bands must match the suspect DNA
  bands EXACTLY!!!

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Evolution DNA

• The more similar the DNA the more closely they
  are related.
• The more different the DNA the more distantly
  they are related.

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Charles Darwin

• Traveled to the Galapagos Islands, most known for
  studying birds and giant tortoises.
• He noticed that the birds on different islands
  had different beaks because they had adapted to
  eating the type of food found on that particular
  island.
• Darwin concluded that all the birds must have
  evolved from the same common ancestor.

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Evolution by Natural Selection

• 1. Overproduction
• 2. Competition food, water, space, mates
• 3. Variation caused by mutation and/or sexual
  reproduction
• 4. Reproduction
• 5. Speciation

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Taxonomy

• All stores.
• Wal-Mart
• Food Side
• Cereal Aisle
• Post Brand Cereal
• Pebbles
• Cocoa Pebbles

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Food Chain VS. Food Web
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Law of Thermodynamics

• Matter and energy are neither created nor
  destroyed, just recycled.
• Food Pyramids
• Water Cycle
• Carbon Cycle
• Nitrogen Cycle

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Ecological Relationships

• Mutualism both benefit clownfish and sea
  anemone
• Commensalism one benefits, the other is
  unaffected algae growing on the back of a turtle
• Parasitism one benefits, the other is harmed
  (often killed) tapeworm and human

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Biotic VS. Abiotic Factors

• Biotic things that are alive animals, people,
  plants, bacteria
• Abiotic things that arent alive water,
  temperature, pH

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Humans Animals

• The greatest impact that humans have on wildlife
  is habitat destruction!!!
• When humans use insects or other animals to
  control a pest population, that is an example of
  a biological control.
• Ex. Farmers in the vineyards of South America
  use chameleons to control the insects that try to
  damage the grape crops.

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BCR 1

• Genetics Huntingtons Disease
• A dominant disease that shows no signs or
  symptoms until age 30-40. Symptoms include
  decreased mental function, loss of muscle
  control, etc. There is no cure.
• Since this is a dominant disorder (H), a person
  with Huntingtons must also have at least one
  parent with the same disease (HH or Hh). A
  person without Huntingtons is hh.
• Some children of Huntingtons parents choose to
  be tested at a young age while others prefer not
  to find out.
• Know how to do a Punnett Square for
  Huntingtons!!!

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Would you get tested?

• Disadvantages
• Some people who find out that they have
  Huntingtons cannot handle knowing.
• The tests can be expensive and sometimes
  inaccurate.
• If Ron has Huntingtons, he may not be able to
  continue to receive health insurance.

• Advantages
• You would know for sure whether you have the
  disease or not.
• You will be able to plan for the future
  accordingly.
• You will know the chances of passing the disease
  to your offspring.

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BCR 2 - Energy Pyramids

• The sun is the original source of almost all the
  energy on the planet. (photosynthesis)
• The available energy and biomass decreases by 90
  with every step of the pyramid. (Only 10 gets
  passed on!)
• The higher you are on the pyramid, the more food
  you have to eat in order to get the same amount
  of energy.
• Producers (autotrophs) are always at the bottom,
  then primary consumers (heterotrophs), then
  secondary consumers (heterotrophs), then tertiary
  consumers (heterotrophs).

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BCR 3 - Microscopy

• Making a wet mount slide.
• 1. Wash and dry slide and cover slip.
• 2. Place one drop of pond water onto the slide.
• 3. Let the cover slip drop onto the slide at a
  45angle.

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BCR 3 Continued

• Using the Microscope
• 1. Always carry it using two hands.
• 2. Plug it in.
• 3. Place the slide on the stage.
• 4. Adjust the diaphragm to control the amount of
  light.
• 5. Use the lowest power objective lens and the
  coarse adjustment knob to focus.
• 6. Once in focus, you can switch to a higher
  power and use the fine adjustment knob.

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BCR 3 Continued

• Making a Biological Drawing
• 1. Draw exactly what you see.
• 2. Always give it a title.
• 3. Always write your total magnification.
• 4. Use labels i.e., cell membrane, ribosomes,
  flagella, etc.
• 5. Sign your drawing.