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BIODIVERSITY

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Title: BIODIVERSITY


1
BIODIVERSITYThe first animal species to go are
the big, slow, the tasty, and those with valuable
parts such as tusks and skins. Edward O.
Wilson- biodiversity expert
  • Chapter 14 APES

2
What is Biodiversity?
  • Variety complexity of life
  • Genetic diversity- measure of the variety of
    different versions of genes within a species
  • Species diversity- number of different kinds of
    organisms within communities or ecosystems.
  • Species diversity takes into account abundance of
    species also evenness
  • Species richness- of species in a biological
    community or a sample.

Genetic Diversity of Cattle
3
Calculating Biodiversity
  • Ecological diversity- assesses the richness and
    complexity of community (including of niches,
    trophic levels, productivity, nutrient recycling
    etc.)
  • Will calculate this by
  • Simpsons Index and
  • Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (related to
    uncertainty)

4
High Species Diversity- complex community
  • High diversity complex community, increased
    species interactions, more energy transfer, high
    productivity
  • High diversity high uncertainty
  • Low diversity?

5
Biodiversity of the Parking Lot Discussion
questions
  • 1.How are diversity (H), species richness (N),
    and abundance (frequency f) related?
  • 2. How are diversity (H) and evenness (J)
    related?
  • 3.What is the relationship between Island size,
    richness, diversity, and population size?
  • 4. How does this activity demonstrate the theory
    of Island Biogeography?

6
Productivity
7
How many species are there?
  • 1.8 million identified
  • Actual of species is probably higher. More
    like 3-50 million that have yet to be discovered.
  • 70 of all known species are invertebrates
  • 10-15 of all species live in N. America
  • Greatest biodiversity centers are Rainforest
    Coral Reefs

8
How do we benefit from biodiversity?
  • Food
  • Many countries have wide variety of food items
    that are not available/cultivated world wide
  • Could increase genetic pool of domestic crop
    genes.
  • Indonesia uses 250 edible fruits, only 43 have
    been cultivated widely.
  • Overgrazing, forest clearing for unsustainable
    agriculture are destroying potential natural food
    sources before they can be identified.

Mangosteen from Indonesia supposedly the best
tasting fruit but only found in tropical
regions- not harvested and shipped overseas for
profit. Is that good or bad?
9
How do we benefit from biodiversity?
  • 2. Drugs Medicine
  • Pharmaceuticals made from plants, animals,
    microbes from developing world have value of 30
    billion/year.
  • Biopiracy- materials/ideas from developing
    countries are used but people not compensated.
  • EX Vinblastine vincristine from Madagascar
    periwinkle are strong anticancer drugs. The total
    value of the crop is 15 million/year, Madagascar
    gets little profit.
  • Some companies (ex Merck) pay scientists to find
    new organisms. INBIO pays locals to help find
    test new species.
  • Selling data specimens will finance scientific
    work and nature protection.

10
How do we benefit from biodiversity?
  • Ecological Benefits
  • Nature maintains ecological cycles (nitrogen,
    water, etc)
  • Genetic library
  • Some species recover quicker from disturbance if
    area was biodiverse to begin with.
  • Removing one species greatly affects all others
    which could affect us
  • EX removal of wolves in Yellowstone led to
    increased herbivore populations that competed
    with livestock and changed ecosystem.
  • EX Insects pests are kept in balance by other
    insects and animals. If they are gone- harmful
    insect populations will rise.

http//www.youtube.com/watch?vBXXczLhzlHA
11
How do we benefit from biodiversity?
  • Aesthetic Cultural Benefits
  • Hunting, fishing, camping, hiking, wildlife
    watching, skiing are based on nature.
  • Contact with nature can be psychologically
    emotionally restorative
  • 104 million spent on wildlife recreation
  • Ecotourism is good form of sustainable economic
    development
  • Existence value- just knowing its there is
    reason to protect
  • Religious groups say to protect Gods creation.

12
What Threatens Biodiversity?
  • Natural Causes of Extinction
  • Mass extinctions due to climate change from
    asteroid impacts
  • Ex Cretaceous- dinosaurs 50 of existing life
    died Permian- 2/3 of all marine life died

13
What Threatens Biodiversity?
  • Human-Caused
  • Some say 1/3-2/3 of all current species will be
    extinct by middle of this century. Maybe
    considered 6th extinction but caused by humans
    not asteroids!

Is this what we have to look forward to?
14
Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
  • A. Habitat Destruction
  • Biggest reason for current extinctions
  • Habitat fragmentation prevents individuals from
    finding each other during breeding seasons
  • Small pop. Not enough breeding adults to keep
    genetic diversity
  • Eliminate prominent and obscure populations

15
Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
  • B. Hunting Fishing
  • Overharvesting depletes population causes
    extinctions
  • EX passenger pigeon most abundant bird in world
    but hunted to extinction in 1900.
  • EX Bison killed by U.S. Army to deprive native
    people of food, clothing, shelter so they would
    have to live on reservations.
  • EX Whales for food, blubber, etc. As fishing
    technology improved, whale population declined.
    International Whaling Commission has had positive
    effects on whale population- prohibiting whaling.
  • Now that population has increased, should
    cultural whaling be allowed?
  • 13 out of 17 principal fishing zones are now
    commercially exhausted or in steep decline. Cod
    industry crashed in 1980s 90s putting 20,000
    people out of work.
  • See What can you do? pg 291 for other species
    of endangered seafood

16
Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
  • C. Commercial Products Live Specimens
  • Smuggling of live animals or animal products is
    big business.
  • Developing countries (Asia, Africa, Latin
    America) are biggest exporters
  • Developed countries (Europe, N. America, and
    China) are biggest importers
  • Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong buy ¾ of all cat and
    snake skins
  • Europeans buy ¾ of live birds
  • US imports 99 of live cacti and 75 of orchids
  • 50 animals are caught or killed for every one
    that makes it to market.

17
  • Ex Rhinos
  • Between 1960 and 1980 population decreased from
    100,000 to 3,000.
  • 28,000 per kg of horn
  • Use horn for medicine- made from keratin like
    hair. Testing has not shown any medicinal value.
  • Make dagger handles- older, larger dagger handles
    are more prestigious (1,000)

18
  • Ex Birds
  • Large birds are too obvious
  • Most birds smuggled in as eggs
  • Use vests under clothing to incubate eggs
  • Mortality rate very high
  • Hyacinth macaw goes for 10,000

19
  • Ex Elephants
  • Shows complexity of wildlife trade
  • Ivory tusks 100 per kg
  • 1.3 million elephants in 1980 10 years later
    only ½ that number.
  • 1989 ivory trade banned.
  • Pop. have increased greatly
  • Herds must be thinned to keep them from
    destroying habitat.
  • Ivory from these animals is sold money used to
    compensate people whose villages are destroyed by
    elephant pop. And used for conservation
    purposes.
  • Should this sale of ivory be allowed?

20
Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
  • D. Predator and Pest Control
  • Many wild animals killed, trapped, poisoned
    because they threaten people, livestock or crops
  • Ex coyotes, bobcats, prairie dogs
  • Some killed unintentionally by eating prey thats
    been poisoned (rodents)
  • Some killed for sport
  • Animal Damage Control Program kills 700,000
    animals (100,000 are coyotes) to prevent
    competition or predation on livestock.
  • Animal protectors say this is cruel and mostly
    ineffective- encourage ranchers to find less
    destructive ways to protect livestock (using
    herders, guard dogs, fencing)

21
Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
  • E. Exotic/invasive species-
  • One of the greatest threats to biodiversity
  • Ex zebra mussel, kudzu, purple loosestrife,
    Asian long-horned beetle, adelgid
  • Species from US have invaded other countries too
  • EX Leidys comb jellyfish outcompete organisms
    in Black Sea Bristle worms taking over coast of
    Poland

22
Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
  • Diseases
  • 1904 shipment of fungus- infected Chestnut tree
    seedlings shipped from China.
  • Caused Chestnut tree blight- reduced population
    almost to extinction
  • Chestnut was a very important, valuable crop- it
    sprouted quickly, nuts provided food for many
    animals, rot resistant so good for building

Blight canker on tree- scientists looking for
blight resistant genes so can breed trees that
will resist disease.
23
Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
  • Pollution
  • DDT used in 1950s as pesticide accumulated in
    aquatic ecosystems, fish eaten by eagles, eagles
    become poisoned, weakens eggshells, shells break,
    babies die, population declines.
  • Lead from spent shotgun shells ingested by bottom
    feeding waterfowl, store lead shot in gizzard
    instead of stones, lead builds in body,
    paralysis, muscle atrophy, tremors, listlessness,
    bile stained feces are common symptoms- what
    would happen to a hunter that ate these birds?

Trumpeter swans are especially vulnerable- above-
foraging bird Below- dead swan from lead poisoning
Lead shot has been banned since 2001.
24
Human Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
  • H. Genetic Assimilation
  • When rare/endangered species interbreed with
    closely related species that are more numerous it
    dilutes gene pool
  • Hybridized timber wolves mate with coyotes or
    domestic dogs- it introduces foreign genes into
    an already dangerously small gene pool reduces
    possibility of purebreds to mate.

25
ENDANGERED SPECIES MANAGEMENT BIODIVERSITY
PROTECTION
26
Hunting Fishing Laws
  • In 1870s animals not protected because people
    thought there would be plenty to go around.
    (Bison went from 6 million to few hundred during
    this time)
  • H F laws enacted in 1890s in most states
  • Restored habitat, planted food crops, etc.
  • Mainly protected game animals
  • Caused increase in many species including deer,
    bison, wild turkeys

27
Endangered Species Act (ESA)
  • Established in 1973
  • Identify protect all endangered species
  • Endangered- verge of extinction
  • Threatened- likely to become endangered locally
    (might not be threatened throughout range) ex
    grizzly bear, bald eagles
  • Vulnerable- naturally rare, locally depleted, may
    be put on list
  • According to ESA, one cannot
  • harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, trap, kill,
    capture, collect either accidentally or on
    purpose
  • Import or export in US
  • Posses, sell, transport, or ship any endangered
    species, its parts, or anything made from its
    parts.

28
Endangered Species Act (ESA)
  • 1. US Fish and Wildlife must compile a list of
    endangered threatened species
  • 2.Endangered threatened sp. May not be caught,
    killed, sold or traded.
  • 3.federal gov. may not carry out any project to
    further jeopardize any species.
  • 4.USFWS must prepare a species recovery plan for
    each endangered threatened species.

29
Endangered Species Act
  • Problems
  • Slow process from initial petition to final
    determination
  • Limited funding
  • Political pressure
  • Listing moratoria
  • Changing administrative policies
  • Many classified as warranted, but precluded for
    lack of funds or local support. 18 species have
    gone extinct waiting for protection.
  • Preserving land is a better approach.
  • Many species are indicator species

30
Recovery Plans
  • Must be submitted by Fish and Wildlife Services
    for all species listed as endangered.
  • Must show how populations will be rebuilt to
    sustainable levels
  • Takes long time due to cost and politics so
    habitat is usually destroyed in planning process
  • 13 million on larger species of mammals only 5
    million on 137 invertebrates and 532 plants put
    together.
  • Funding often based on emotions politics vs.
    biology
  • Success stories
  • American alligator, Bald Eagle, Peregrine falcon

31
Recovery Plans
  • Opponents of ESA
  • ESA was overridden in 1978 when Tellico Dam built
    in TN, threatened snail darter fish.
  • 33 billion industry hindered when old-growth
    forests are preserved for northern spotted owl.
    By protecting the owl we are protecting lots of
    other species.

32
Private Land and Critical Habitat
  • If land had end. species on it, it must be
    protected.
  • Cannot use or sell land
  • Many private owners resent this and will shoot,
    shovel, and shut up or ask for compensation for
    lost value due to ESA regulations.
  • Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs)- land owner
    allowed to harvest resources or build as long as
    species benefits overall.

33
Reauthorizing the Endangered Species Act
  • Expired in 1992
  • Opponents- see it as plot to take away private
    land, puts plants animals before people
  • Supporters- essential to protecting nature and
    maintaining viability of planet
  • 2 Proposals
  • Environmentalists- want protection of habitat not
    just individual species require deadlines HCPs
    reviewed by scientists increase penalties
  • Opposers- include all individuals with vested
    interest in area take cheapest route to save
    species no consultation needed from scientists

34
Minimum Viable Populations
  • If population is too small, genetic diversity may
    not be great enough to keep a healthy population
    going.
  • Island biogeography- population can decline
    catastrophically due to environmental change or
    genetic problems when confined to limited
    geographic ranges (EO Wilson RH MacArthur)
  • Leads to inbreeding which makes species weaker.
  • Occurring with cheetahs grizzly bears

35
Theory of Island Biogeography
  • Communities on large island tend to have more
    species.
  • The found is determined by a balance btwn
    immigration and extinction
  • 2 features affect these rates
  • 1. island size
  • 2. distance from the nearest mainland
  • Fast Fact 90loss of habitat causes extinction
    of 50 of species on the island

36
Habitat Protection
  • Are we spending more on species whose genetic
    diversity is already so low, its already doomed?
  • If we breed animals in zoos release them, will
    we have a habitat to release them into?
  • By protecting habitat we protect many species not
    just one.

37
International Wildlife Treaties
  • Convention on International Trade in Endangered
    Species (CITES)
  • Est. in 1975
  • Worldwide ban and protection of end. Flora
    fauna
  • Developing countries have more pressing problems
    than protecting species
  • Difficult to keep track of smuggling- law
    enforcement lax.

38
Captive Breeding Species Survival Plans
  • Many species caught from wild and put in zoos-
    80 die in transit.
  • Now, more species are being produced from
    breeding in captivity.
  • Bats, whales, reptiles will not breed in cages
  • Zoos could provide money resources (radios,
    training, etc) to native habitats to preserve
    animals in native areas.
  • Would you favor saving disease organisms,
    parasites, or vermin or should we use our limited
    resources to save only beautiful, interesting,
    useful organisms?
  • Species Survival Plan- move animals between zoos
    for mating to keep good genetic diversity

39
Botanical Gardens Germ Plasm Banks
  • Botanical gardens are like zoos for plants
  • Germ Plasm Banks- are sperm banks for plants
    and animals. Keep seed or sperm/egg viable in
    case populations become endangered/extinct.

40
Characteristics of species which make them prone
to extinction
  • Characteristic
  • Low reproductive rate (K strategist)
  • Specialized niche
  • Narrow distribution
  • Feeds _at_ high trophic level
  • Fixed migratory patterns
  • Rare
  • Commercially valuable
  • Large territorities
  • Example
  • Blue whale, panda, rhinoceros
  • Blue whale, panda, everglades kite
  • Many island species, elephant seal, desert
    pupfish
  • Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear
  • Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtles
  • Many island species, African violet, orchids
  • Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare
    plants
  • California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther

41
Private Organizations
  • Many private organizations work to protect
    species worldwide, often more effectively than
    government agencies.
  • World Wildlife Fund sustainable use of
    resources and wildlife protection
  • Nature Conservancy has purchased land to turn
    into nature preserves in 29 countries
  • Conservation International identifies
    biodiversity hot spots
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