JPN494: Japanese Language and Linguistics JPN543: Advanced Japanese Language and Linguistics

1
JPN494 Japanese Language and LinguisticsJPN543
Advanced Japanese Language and Linguistics

• Syntax (2)

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Constructions

• passive construction(s) (?????)
• causative construction(s) (?????)
• benefactive constructions (????? ???)

3
Grammatical Voice

• voice the way the semantic arguments of a verb
  are expressed grammatically.
• Joe broke the vase (active)
• The vase was broken (by Joe) (passive)
• Joe called a taxi (for me).
• Joe called me a taxi. (benefactive)
• Joe danced.
• Ken made Joe dance. (causative)
• Joe cut the bread. (active)
• This bread cuts easily (by Joe). (middle)
• This bread cut yesterday / OKThis vase broke
  yesterday.

4
Classification of voice phenomena

• (i) no form change, (ii) morphology (inflection,
  derivation), or (iii) syntax
• argument-augmenting vs. argument-decrementing
• passive, anti-passive, middle
• causative, applicative (benefactive-applicative,
  etc.)

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Passive causative forms

• kak-u, kak-are-ru, kak-ase-ru
• mi-ru, mi-rare-ru, mi-sase-ru
• ku-ru, ko-rare-ru, ko-sase-ru
• su-ru, s-are-ru, s-ase-ru
• short causatives with -(s)as-
• tob-as-u, nak-as-u, kak-as-u, nom-as-u,
  hanas-as-u,
• mi-sas-u, tabe-sas-u, sirabe-sas-u, ko-sas-u,

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Short causatives

• ugok-as-u, ?ugok-ase-ru (???/????)
• her-as-u, ?her-ase-ru (???/????)
• ? (??) ??/?????, ? (?) ??/?? (?) ???
• tob-as-u, tob-ase-ru (???/????)
• nak-as-u, nak-ase-ru (???/????)
• ?kak-as-u, kak-ase-ru (???/????)
• ?nom-as-u, nom-ase-ru (???/????)
• ?mi-sas-u, mi-sase-ru (???/????)

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• -(s)ase- is a highly productive causativizing
  affix it can attach to any intr., tr., or ditr.
  verb.
• -(s)as- is semi-productive but its use is less
  preferred (obsolete) except with certain
  intransitive verbs.
• ?????????????????????????????????
• -e-, -os-, etc. are attached only to (a limited
  number of) intransitive verbs.

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Morphological causatives

• ??
• ?????????? (?-causative)
• ?????????? (?-causative)
• ??
• ???????????????
• (?)???????????????
• ??
• ????????????
• ????????????

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• causative (make) vs. permissive (let)
  (factitive causative vs. permissive causative)
• ????????? (?????) ??? (?-causative)
• causative, ??permissive
• ???????????? (?-causative)
• causative, permissive

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• ???????????? (??) ???
• causative, permissive
• cf. ???????????????

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lexical causative vs. morphological causative

• Direct vs. Indirect causation
• ???????? (?) ??. (lexical)
• ???????? (?) ????. (morphological)
• ?????, ?????? (?) ??, ?? ???/?????.
• ?????, ??? (?) ??, ??????????? ???/?????.
• ?????, ??????? (????) ????, ???????????
  ???/?????.
• ?????, ??????????, ?????????????? (??) ??
  ???/?????.
• direct vs. indirect measures cf. stop the car
  vs. make the car stop, cause the car to stop

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Iconicity

• Iconicity between forms and described situations
• onomatopoeia long vs. loooong
• the complicatedness/usualness of the form the
  complicatedness/usualness of the described process

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Morphological passives

• yak-are-ru, or-are-ru, war-are-ru
• yak-u, yak-e-ru (??/???)
• or-u, or-e-ru (??/???)
• war-u, war-e-ru (??/???)
• ?? (???) ??? (???) ? ???/?????? ????.
• ?????? ???/?????? ???.

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• The ship was sunk to collect insurance.
• The ship sank to collect insurance.
• ??? (??) ????? (??) ????.
• ??????????.
• A passive implies the presence of a volitional
  agent. (The agent can be explicitly expressed if
  necessary.)

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Lexical passives

• ??? - ??? - ?????
• (osie-ru - osowar-u - osie-rare-ru)
• ????????????????.
• ?????????????????.
• (?)??????????????????.
• ?? - ??? - (????)
• (kas-u - kari-ru - kas-are-ru)
• ???????????????.
• ???????????????.
• ??????????????????.

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• direct passive
• ????????? (??) ???.
• ???????????.
• ??? (??????) ??? (?????) ???? ? (?) ????.
• ??????????.
• ???? is used (i) in formal speech/writing, and
  (ii) when the subject undergoes a change of state
  (creation, destruction, etc.) by the described
  action.

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• ?????????????.
• ????(?? ?/???? )???????.
• ???(???)????????.

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• There is a bias to keep the speaker as the
  subject / promote the speaker as the subject.
• ????????? (???) ??.
• ????????????.
• ???????????.
• ??????????????.

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• Yamada criticized me.
• I was criticized by Yamada.
• I criticized Yamada.
• ??Yamada was criticized by me.

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• It is generally preferred for the subject of the
  main clause and the subordinate clause to match.
• ?????, ????????????? (??) ????.
• Yamada still resents that he was criticized by
  me.
• ?????, ?????????, ???????????????.
• Yamada got depressed after I criticized him.
• cf. ??????????????.

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• possessive passive
• ????? (???) ?? (???) ?? (??) ???.
• (???) ???????????.
• ??????, (??)??(???)? (?) ???.
• ??????, (???)(??)?????.
• (??)??(????)?????, ??????.
• (????)(??)???????, ??????.
• The passivized sentences are much more natural.

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• indirect passive (adversative passive ????
  ???????)
• ??????.
• It rained on me.
• ???? (???) ???.
• I ended up outliving my husband.
• (??) ????????, ???????????.
• I couldnt come to the appointment on time
  because of the delay of the train.
• ??????????? (Oh, you got a haircut.)
• ?????? (Does it look good?)
• ?? ()
• ???????(She turned pale.) (FPN)

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• The passive in Japanese is not (always)
  argument-decrementing.
• Possessive indirect passives are often grouped
  together, but only the latter has the adversative
  meaning.

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Giving benefactive verbs

• ??/??? - ?????
• ??? - ????
• ??? - ????
• ??? used be a honorific expression, but
  nowadays it is considered a polite expression on
  a par with ??/??
• ??????/???
• ???????/???

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The benefactive use of ???, ???, ???

• ????, ????, ????
• ? benefactor, ?? beneficiary
• ????????????.
• ???????????????.
• ????????????.
• ????????? (???) ?????.
• ???????????.
• ??????????? (??) ?????.
• ?????.
• ?????? ?/???? ???????????.
• ??????????. (creation verbs)

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• ??????????/??????????????????.
• ??????????/?????????????????.
• ??(????????)?????????????.
• ??(????????)????????????.

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• ? beneficiary, ?? benfactor
• ?????? ?/?? ??????.
• ?????? ?/?? ?????????.
• ????????????. (actual transfer of an object)
• ???????????????.
• ???????????.
• ???????????????????.
• ?????????????.
• ??????????????.
• ????????.

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???/??? vs. ???

• ????????????.
• ????????????.
• ???????/????????.

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??? vs. ???

• The choice between ??? ??? is determined based
  on whose perspective the speaker takes
• ??? is chosen when the speaker empathizes with
  the agent/benefactor more than with the
  recipient/beneficiary.
• ??? is chosen when the speaker empathizes with
  the recipient/beneficiary more than with the
  agent/benefactor.
• (When the perspective is neutral, ??? is used.
  e.g. ????????? (??) ?????????/???)

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• The relevant hierarchies
• speaker gtgt hearer gt other
• familiar gt not-familiar
• human gt non-human animate gt inanimate

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• 1 gt 2, 1 gt 3
• ??????? (???) ?????.
• ????????????.
• ????????????.
• ????????????.
• (??)(??)????????
• (??)(??)????????
• ????????????? (????)
• ????????????? (??)

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• 2 vs. 3
• ?????????????
• ?????????????
• ????(??)??????????
• ????(??)??????????

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• (animacy)
• ???????????? (????) ????????/?????.
• ????????????????/???.

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• ??????. ????????
• ???????. ?????????
• (?)????????. (?)???????????
• ?????. ????????
• ????????????. ?????????????
• ???????. ??????????
• ??????? ???????? (condescending)
• cf. ?????????????????????,
• ???? (????)?????????.

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Syntactic direction

• In many languages (Navajo, Algonquians, etc.),
  the empathy-based opposition (analogous to the
  ageru/kureru opposition) is systematically
  encoded by transitive/ditransitive verbs in
  general.
• direct form ( ageru) vs. indirect form (
  kureru)
• I saw-dir the doctor.
• The doctor saw-inv me.
• The boy kicked-dir the horse.
• The horse kicked-inv the boy.
• The poison killed-inv the sheep.