National Humanities Center

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National Humanities Center Community in African
American Culture, 1917-1968 a live, online
professional development seminar
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Focus Questions How was African American
community constructed between 1917 and 1968?
Under what circumstances was it created? How
did evolving concepts of community affect and
reflect notions of African American identity?
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Stephanie Shaw National Humanities Center
Fellow 1995-96 Associate Professor of
History Ohio State University What a Woman Ought
To Be and To Do Black Professional Women Workers
during the Jim Crow Era (1996) Soul, Striving,
Spirit, and Science W. E. B. Du Bois and The
Souls of Black Folk (forthcoming)

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• Community in African American Culture, 1917-1968
• Themes
• Internal incentives/disincentives to community
  formation
• External incentives/disincentives to community
  formation
• Types of communities
• Geographical communities
• Identity communities
• Interest communities
• Others
• Community and consciousness

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• Dayton, Ohio
• July 17, 1917
• My Dear Pastor and Wife
• I reed your letter was Glad to hear from you I
  am do hope the same for you I am send you some
  money from my back salary I will send you some
  more the 5 of September next month Give love to
  all members of the church I will be home on a
  visit in Oct are early so pray for me write to me
  I would have wrote to you but I didnot no just
  what to say all of the people leaves Go to place
  up East that I did not no weather or not you care
  to hear from me are not so I am glad you think of
  me. Mr. O_____ write me was going to take out
  life insurance with him but he would not send me
  the paper so I just let it go as I guess he did
  not class me with himself I mak 70 month at this
  hotel and then not work hard.

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• Narrative of A. I. and Samuel Dixie
• A.I Dixie I joined the Order of the
  Emancipated Americans in the thirties. Its
  strong now because I hold a gathering now. Its
  not strong as it used to be because folks are
  making more money. See, you just paid 75 cents a
  month, and they give you 200 in cash when you
  die. But when it was started up, it wasnt
  paying that. If you was a farmer and your mule
  died, and you belonged to the Emancipated Order,
  everybody that had a mule had to give you a days
  work, until they could get you another mule. And
  if your house get burned down, they would chip in
  and help you get shelter. It wouldnt be a fine
  house, but now with the folk making money, we
  aint got the members we used to have. That
  aint enough money for me, but I tell them every
  year, What money? It was the strength that you
  help me, and I help you. It was originally if a
  member got sick the lodge just send a brother,
  two brothers to sit with him if its a man, and
  if its a woman, they would send two ladies,
  because we didnt have hospitals, just had to
  sit around. This here was a demand from the
  lodge this was out of their ruling. He could
  say, You go stay with so-and-so. They would
  send a different person every night, two
  different people every night. I had went and
  stayed from first dark to five oclock, time
  enough to go home and get my breakfast and get
  prepared to go to work. When we went there and
  the family then could go on to their room and
  sleep, because they had to stay and care for
  him all that day. Some of them lodge members
  would go there every night. But now they got
  hospitals so as I was telling the people I
  say, You all dont understand it like I did.
  Thats what they were doing. If a mans mule
  died, and he was a member, and his crop need
  plowing and hed make it known, and this brother
  go down and give him a day. Thats how that thing
  got started. See, folk on a tobacco farm, theyd
  have to go up to the boss to get a casket for
  their people. And one or two wise men said, Why
  cant us put us little might together, and save
  us from having to stand around somebody elses
  the bossmans house, when somebody die? So
  then they would give you that cash, and you could
  go get your casket.

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• Jo Ann Gibson Robinson,
• The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who
  Started It
• One minister read the circular, inquired about
  the announcements, and found that all the citys
  black congregations were quite intelligent on the
  matter and were planning to support the one-day
  boycott with or without their ministers
  leadership. It was then that the ministers
  decided that it was time for them, the leaders,
  to catch up with the masses. If the people were
  really determined to stage this one-day protest,
  then they would need moral support and Christian
  leadership. The churches could serve as channels
  of communication, as well as altars where people
  could come for prayer and spiritual guidance.
  Since the ministers were servants of the people
  and of God, and believed in the gospel of social
  justice, and since the churches were institutions
  supported by the people, the clerics could serve
  as channels through which all the necessary
  benefits could flow. Thus, for the first time in
  the history of Montgomery, black ministers united
  to lead action for civic improvement. There was
  no thought of denomination. Baptists,
  Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Lutherans,
  Congregationalists, and others joined together
  and became one band of ministerial brothers,
  offering their leadership to the masses. Had they
  not done so, they might have alienated themselves
  from their congregations and indeed lost members,
  for the masses were ready, and they were united!

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Malcolm X, Not Just and American Problem, but a
World Problem As many of you know, I left the
Black Muslim movement and during the summer
months, I spent five of those months on thein
the Middle East and on the African continent.
During this time I visited many countries, first
of which was Egypt, and then Arabia, then Kuwait,
Lebanon, Sudan, Kenya, Ethiopia, Kenya, Zanzibar,
Tanganyikawhich is now TanzaniaNigeria, Ghana,
Guinea, Liberia, Algeria. And then the five
months that I was away I had an opportunity to
hold lengthy discussions with President Nasser in
Egypt, President Julius Nyerere in Tanzania, Jomo
Kenyatta in Kenya, Milton Obote in Nigeria,
Nkrumah in Ghana, and Sekou Toure in Guinea. And
during those conversations with these men, and
other Africans on that continent, there was much
information exchanged that definitely broadened
my understanding, and I feel, broadened my scope.
For since coming back from over there, I have
had no desire whatsoever to get bogged down in
any picayune arguments with any bird-brained or
small-minded people who happen to belong to
organizations, based upon facts that are very
misleading and dont get you anywhere when you
have problems as complex as ours that are trying
to get solved.
As many of you know,
As many of you know,
U.S. CIA / Library of Congress
U.S. CIA / Library of Congress
I left the Black Mus-
I left the Black Mus-
lim movement and
lim movement and
during the summer
during the summer
months, I spent five of
months, I spent five of
those months on the
those months on the
in the Middle East and
in the Middle East and
on the African conti-
on the African conti-
nent. During this time I
nent. During this time I
visited many countries,
visited many countries,
first of which was
first of which was
Egypt, and then Ara-
Egypt, and then Ara-
bia, then Kuwait,
bia, then Kuwait,
Lebanon, Sudan, Ken-
Lebanon, Sudan, Ken-
ya, Ethiopia, Zanzibar,
ya, Ethiopia, Zanzibar,
Tanganyika which
Tanganyika which
is now Tanzania
is now Tanzania
Nigeria, Ghana, Gui-
Nigeria, Ghana, Gui-
nea, Liberia, Algeria.
nea, Liberia, Algeria.
And then the five
And then the five
months that I was
months that I was
away I had an oppor-
away I had an oppor-
tunity to hold lengthy
tunity to hold lengthy
discussions with Presi-
discussions with Presi-
dent Nasser in Egypt,
dent Nasser in Egypt,
President Julius Nye-
President Julius Nye-
rere in Tanzania, Jomo
rere in Tanzania, Jomo
Kenyatta in Kenya,
Kenyatta in Kenya,
Milton Obote in Ugan-
Milton Obote in Ugan-
da, Azikiwe in Niger-
da, Azikiwe in Niger-
Africa, 2005 nations listed by Malcolm X in
blue see text, left. (Zanzibar,
Africa, 2005 nations listed by Malcolm X in
blue see text, left. (Zanzibar,
ia, Nkrumah in Ghana,
ia, Nkrumah in Ghana,
in the Indian Ocean, consists of two islands
controlled by Tanzania.)
in the Indian Ocean, consists of two islands
controlled by Tanzania.)
and Sékou Touré in
and Sékou Touré in
Guinea.
Guinea.
And during conversations with these men, and
other Africans on that continent, there was much
And during conversations with these men, and
other Africans on that continent, there was much
information exchanged that definitely broadened
my understanding, and I feel, broadened my scope.
For
information exchanged that definitely broadened
my understanding, and I feel, broadened my scope.
For
since coming back from over there, I have had no
desire whatsoever to get bogged down in any
picayune
since coming back from over there, I have had no
desire whatsoever to get bogged down in any
picayune
arguments with any bird-brained or small-minded
people who happen to belong to organizations,
based
arguments with any bird-brained or small-minded
people who happen to belong to organizations,
based
upon facts that are very misleading and dont get
you anywhere when you have problems as complex as

upon facts that are very misleading and dont get
you anywhere when you have problems as complex as

ours that are trying to get solved
ours that are trying to get solved
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• Malcolm X, Not Just an American Problem, but a
  World Problem
• We are living in a society that is by and large
  controlled by people who believe in segregation.
  We are living in a society that is by and large
  controlled by a people who believe in racism, and
  practice segregation and discrimination and
  racism. We believe in a and I say that it is
  controlled, not by the well-meaning whites, but
  controlled by the segregationists, the racists.
  And you can see by the pattern that this society
  follows all over the world. Right now in Asia you
  have the American army dropping bombs on
  dark-skinned people. You cant say that its as
  though you can justify being that far from home,
  dropping bombs on somebody else. If you were next
  door, I could see it, but you cant go that far
  away from this country and drop bombs on somebody
  else and justify your presence over there, not
  with me.
• Its racism. Racism practiced by America. Racism
  which involves a war against the dark-skinned
  people in Asia, another form of racism involving
  a war against the dark-skinned people in the
  Congo . . . as it involves a war against the
  dark-skinned people in Mississippi, Alabama,
  Georgia, and Rochester, New York.

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• Malcolm X, Not Just an American Problem, but a
  World Problem
• Since the civil rights bill I used to see
  African diplomats at the UN crying out against
  the injustice that was being done to Black people
  in Mozambique, in Angola, the Congo, in South
  Africa, and I wondered why and how they could go
  back to their hotels and turn on the TV and see
  dogs biting Black people right down the block and
  policemen wrecking the stores of Black people
  with their clubs right down the block, and
  putting water hoses on Black people with pressure
  so high it tear our clothes off, right down the
  block. And I wondered how they could talk all
  that talk about what was happening in Angola and
  Mozambique and all the rest of it and see it
  happen right down the block and get up on the
  podium in the UN and not say anything about it.
• But I went and discussed it with some of them.
  And they said that as long as the Black man in
  America calls his struggle a struggle of civil
  rights that in the civil rights context, its
  domestic and it remains within the jurisdiction
  of the United States. And if any of them open up
  their mouths to say anything about it, its
  considered a violation of the laws and rules of
  protocol. And the difference with the other
  people was that they didnt call their grievances
  civil rights grievances, they called them
  human rights grievances. Civil rights are
  within the jurisdiction of the government where
  they are involved. But human rights is part of
  the charter of the United Nations.
• All the nations that signed the charter of the
  UN came up with the Declaration of Human Rights
  and anyone who classifies his grievances under
  the label of human rights violations, those
  grievances can then be brought into the United
  Nations and be discussed by people all over the
  world. For as long as you call it civil rights
  your only allies can be the people in the next
  community, many of whom are responsible for your
  grievance. But when you call it human rights it
  becomes international. And then you can take your
  troubles to the World Court. You can take them
  before the world. And anybody anywhere on this
  earth can become your ally.
• So one of the first steps that we became
  involved in, those of us who got into the
  Organization of Afro-American Unity, was to come
  up with a program that would make our grievances
  international and make the world see that our
  problem was no longer a Negro problem or an
  American problem but a human problem. A problem
  for humanity. And a problem which should be
  attacked by all elements of humanity. A problem
  that was so complex that it was impossible for
  Uncle Sam to solve it himself and therefore we
  want to get into a body or conference with people
  who are in such positions that they can help us
  get some kind of adjustment for this situation
  before it gets so explosive that no one can
  handle it.

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Focus Questions How was African American
community constructed between 1917 and 1968?
Under what circumstances was it created? How
did evolving concepts of community affect and
reflect notions of African American identity?
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• Final slide
• Thank you.