South Asia c. 1000

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South Asia c. 1000

• Contextualizing Ghaznavid Expansion

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Aspects of Geography

• River valleys in broad plains (Ganges, Indus,
  Kavery) were more likely to have dense
  populations than river valleys in rocky areas
  (Narmada)
• The heavier flow of monsoons (July-August)
  ensured prosperity in some areas.
• The Deccan is not an impervious barrier, however,
  it did lead to a slightly different set of
  political and cultural formations in the North
  versus the south
• Linguistic and geographical regions overlap

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Geographic advantages

• Most parts of River valleys very fertileallow
  2-3 crops per year
• Abundant free labor
• Geographical micro-regions also lead to great
  linguistic, social, and political diversity
• Easy travel allows for tradealthough the
  instability of N.W border is a concern

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Religions in S. Asia

• In the previous centuries, Buddhism had become
  greatly popular, but slowly through the late
  medieval period, Hinduism had a re-surgance.
• The caste system, as a result of this change,
  also became more entrenched
• In terms of practice, however, there was great
  diversity (ex. Monotheism v. Polytheism, etc.)
• Significant groups of Buddhists, Jains,
  Christians, Jews, Zorastrians, and Muslims
  continued to be found in S. Asia, specially in
  trading zones.

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Caste System

• Two modes of classifciation
• According to Brahminical classical texts Varna
  is rigid, based on birth
• Brahmin Priests and scholars
• Kshatriya Warriors and Kings
• Vaishya Traders, Merchants, Shopkeepers
• Shudra Peasants
• In actual practice, Jati is more common
• Kinship groups
• Marriage patterns based on kin exogamy, caste
  endogamy

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Political Developments, c. 1000

• Since the seventh century, smaller kingdoms had
  become the norm
• Dominated by new warrior groups such as Rajputs
  (north) and Cholas (south)
• Most had smaller territories and subdivided rule
  among subordinate dynasties
• Cholas were more expansionist, had features of a
  growing empire

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Turkish Groups
Rajputsmany chiefs (Gurjara-Pratiharas)
Palas
Rashtrakuts
Cholas
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Political TrendsNorth-west Frontier

• The weakening of the Abbasid Empire in the middle
  east gave an impetus to Turkish, Afghan, Mongol
  tribes in Central Asia.
• These groups would expand out of Central Asia
  into the Middle East, S. Asia, and China.
• Most groups were pastoral nomads, but their
  background offered many advantages compared to
  the sedentary, settled empires they attacked.

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Origins of Turkish Power

• Origins of Turks
• Relative status of Turks at the time of Mahmuds
  birth r. 998-1030CE (former slave soldiers)
• Open-ness of Turkish identity and utility in
  raising armies
• Influence of Islamwere Turkish states
  theocracies or was it a legitimizing move?
• Persianizationlanguage, arts, courtly culture
  (Patronage of Al-Beruni and Firdausi)

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Mahmuds rise to power

• Benefited from the expansion under his father
  Subuktigin
• Was able to create larger army by enrolling other
  tribes and mercenaries
• Needed larger revenue sources to continue
  expansion and pay allies

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Mahmuds Raids and Imperial policy

• Create Tax base to maintain a large army with
  many cavalry units, horses, equipment
• Create a sense of personal loyalty among
  ethnically diverse commanders through the
  distribution of wealth, looted goods, and
  treasure
• Realization that only territories closer to the
  periphery of Ghazni could be ruled directly, so
  no attempt to annex Indian territories west of
  the Indus into the core of the empire.
• Secure trade routes in Central Asia and secure
  the borders of the core empire by creating
  tributary states, but not waste resources
  conquering them.
• Therefore Mahmuds presence in India is only
  through temporary raids, not through conquest.

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Major Campaigns

• 1000-1005 Northern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir
• 1006, 1008-1009 Multan
• 1018-1019First extensive raid into Delhi,
  Mathura, Kanauj
• 1025-1026 The Somnath raids
• Some myths and realities about raids

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Sources for this period

• UtubiMahmuds court historian
• Al-Beruniwar captive and scholar
• Later histories such as those authored by
  Ferishta, Isami, Barani some 200-400 years later
• Rules governing Tarikh (Persian court histories)
  Indian Itihaasa/Purana traditions
• How do we sift through these texts?
• Be alert for biases
• Look for obvious exaggerations, compare with
  other sources
• Think carefully of the relationship between the
  author, patron, and the story being told

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Contemporary Perceptions

• Mahmuds raids seen as an Islamic Conquest
• Relationship b/w perception and religious
  polarization in South Asia, compare Pakistani v.
  Indian views
• Great exaggeration of impact of raids, Imperial
  control, numbers killed

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Mahmuds motivation and his impact conclusions

• Was his primary motivation political or religious
  (sharia-minded)?
• Primary impact was not that of conquest but of
  the possibility of gaining access to a vastly
  profitable landthe weakness of Indian borders.
  Also demonstrated the need for local allies and
  the difficulties of continued rule.
• The raided parts quickly recovered. Trade was
  established, temples were rebuilt. Rajput
  confederacies quickly re-established political
  control.
• The popular historiography is less helpful in
  giving us information about Mahmuds own time,
  much more useful in indicating his influence and
  growing myth in later times as exemplary Turkish
  warrior and ruler.

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Ilbari Rule

• Long gap of almost 150 years between Mahmud and
  the Ilbaris
• Next campaign does not occur until the late 12th
  Century under Muhammad Ghori
• The renewed strength of the Rajputs and Indian
  tribes is clearly demonstrated in their strong
  opposition of Muhammad Ghoris armies

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Comparing Campaign Routes
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Muiz-ud-din Mohamad Ghori, 1173-1206

• Multan campaign1175-8
• Lahore1179-86, three attempts
• First Battle of Tarrain1190
• Finally, Victory at the Second Battle of Tarrain,
  1192Why?