Biology I EOC Review

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Biology I EOC Review
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• State the 3 tenets of the Cell
• Theory
• All organisms are composed of cells.
• The cell is the basic unit of any organism.
• Cells come from other cells.

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• Compare and contrast prokaryotic
• and eukaryotic cells
• Prokaryotes have no membrane bound organelles,
  including a nucleus (probefore, karyonucleus)
• Eukaryotes have membrane bound organelles
  (nucleus, mitchondria, ER, vacuoles, etc.)
  (eutrue)
• All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and
  ribosomes

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• Kingdoms Archaea and Bacteria are the only
  prokaryotes
• All other cells (Kingdoms Protista, Fungi,
  Plantae, and Animalia) are eukaryotes

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• Identify basic cell organelles,
• giving their structure and function
• Nucleus contains DNA, large, usually found in
  cells center, surrounded by a nuclear membrane

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• Mitochondria site of Krebs cycle and electron
  transport of cell respiration bulk of ATP made
  here to supply the cell with energy

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A Mitochondrion

• Outer membrane, folded inner membrane (cristae),
  fluid called matrix

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• Chloroplast site of photosynthesis contains
  chlorophyll along with accessory pigments that
  absorb the energy from the sun to convert carbon
  dioxide and water into sugar

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A Chloroplast

• Outer membrane, inner membrane organized in
  flattened sacs (thylakoids), surrounded by fluid
  called stroma

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• Lysosome membrane bound contains digestive
  enzymes for breaking down cells and molecules
• Vacuoles storage compartments membrane bound
  contain food, water, or waste plant cells have
  large water vacuoles and animals have small ones

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• Ribosomes site of protein synthesis very small
  (relatively speaking!) and numerous often found
  on the surface of ER

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• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)- membrane bound tubes
  that transport materials rough if ribosomes are
  attached, smooth without ribosomes

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• Golgi membrane bound, flattened, stacked, sacs
  modifies, collects, packages, and distributes
  molecules

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• Cilia and Flagella small, hairlike extensions
  on the outside of cells usually used for
  locomotion

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• Cell membrane (plasma membrane) cell structure
  that encloses the cell and regulates the passage
  of materials into and out of the cell protects
  and supports the cell

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• Cell Wall outside cell membrane provides
  support plants, bacteria, fungi, and some
  protists have cell walls

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• Cytoplasm jelly-like material moves large
  particles around in cell

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Locate and identify the organelles from a drawing
or model of a cell
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Classify a cell as a plant or an animal cell

• Plant cells have cell walls, a large water
  vacuole, and chloroplasts
• Animal cells no cell walls, can have cilia
  and/or flagella

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Which is the plant and which is the animal cell?
How do you know?
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Explain cell differentiation as the basis for the
hierarchical organization of multicellular
organisms

• A fertilized egg (zygote) divides to make
  different kinds of cells with different
  structures and functions
• As cells divide, certain genes are activated or
  turned on and some are deactivated or turned
  off so the cells become different kinds of cells
  (differentiation)

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• Stem cells are unspecialized cells that can
  differentiate embryonic stem cells are found in
  embryos adult stem cells are found in adults,
  such as cells in bone marrow that differentiate
  into different types of blood cells

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• A group of like cells make up a tissue
• Groups of different tissues make up an organ
• Groups of organs make up an organ system
• cells?tissues?
• organs?systems

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Explain active, passive, and facilitated transport

• Passive transport materials move from higher to
  lower concentrations using their own energy this
  movement is downhill the membrane must be
  permeable to the particle

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• Active transport - materials are moved from
  lower to higher concentrations using the cells
  energy this movement is uphill or against the
  concentration gradient for example, when glucose
  is moved into liver cells even if the
  concentration is higher in the liver cells than
  the surrounding blood the liver cells use their
  own energy (ATP)

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Active Transport Animation

• http//www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/bio
  coach/biomembrane1/diffusion.html

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• Some particles require proteins (ion channels) to
  diffuse through this is called facilitated
  diffusion

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• DIFFUSION IS PASSIVE IF PARTICLES ARE MOVING FROM
  A HIGHER TO LOWER CONCENTRATION (DOWN THE
  CONCENTRATION GRADIENT) EVEN IF IT IS FACILITATED
  DIFFUSION!!!!!
• FACILITATED DIFFUSION ISNT NECESSARILY
  ACTIVE!!!! (Its only active if particles are
  going uphill or from a lower to higher
  concentration)

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• Hypotonic solute concentration is low (water
  concentration is high)
• Hypertonic solute concentration is high (water
  concentration is low)
• Isotonic solute concentrations are equal (at
  equilibrium)
• (TONIC MEANS SOLUTE NOT WATER!!!)

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• Water goes Out of hypOtonic areas and entERs
  hypERtonic areas

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Animation showing cytolysis (bursting) and
plasmolysis (shrinking) of a human red blood cell
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Cytolysis cells taking in too much water
(plants prevent this by the cell wall)
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Plasmolysis plants losing too much water
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Large Particles are Transported by Vesicles
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Large Amounts of Materials Get Into Cells by
Endocytosis and exit by Exocytosis
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• Explain the cell cycle to include
• cytokinesis and mitosis, G1, S, and
• G2, and cytokinesis

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• G1 cell grows and matures
• S DNA replicates
• G2 cell prepares for mitosis by making proteins
  used in the division
• Mitosis cell divides DNA
• Cytokinesis cytoplasm and other organelles are
  divided

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Structure of a double-stranded chromosome
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• Prophase nuclear membrane breaks down
  chromatin condenses into chromosomes centrioles
  (in animal cells) move to opposite poles spindle
  forms and attaches to opposite chromatids

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• Metaphase chromosomes line up at the cells
  equator (metaphase plate)

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• Anaphase spindle pulls sister chromatids apart
  to opposite poles (dividing at the centromere)

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• Telophase nuclear membrane reforms around each
  set of DNA chromosomes once again become
  chromatin spindle fibers break down overlaps
  with cytokinesis

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• Cytokinesis cell divides into two daughter
  cells in animal cells, cleavage occurs (creates
  a cleavage furrow) when the cell pinches in to
  form 2 cells in plant cells, a cell plate forms
  in the cells center which will later from a new
  cell wall

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• Discuss cancer as cell division out
• of control
• Tumor cells have lost their ability to control
  their cell division caused by carcinogens
  (environmental factors), mutations, or an unknown
  cause

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• Signals from inside the cell (internal signals)
  and from outside the cell (external signals) turn
  cell division off and on
• Cells divide when they are loosely packed
  together and stop dividing when they are touching
  other cells
• Checkpoints are places in the cell cycle where
  there is either a STOP signal or a GO signal

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• Cells of the immune system can sometimes detect
  cancer cells and destroy them
• A malignant tumor invades tissues and keeps them
  from performing their function it can also
  spread (metastasize)
• A benign tumor doesnt impair tissue or organ
  function (usually) and doesnt metastasize

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• Explain that enzymes lower activation energy.
• Enzymes lower activation energy (energy required
  to start a chemical reaction), causing reactions
  to proceed faster
• Enzymes are catalysts they speed up chemical
  reactions, but arent changed themselves

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Reaction With and Without an Enzyme
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A Substrate Fits into the Active Site of an
Enzyme Molecule
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An Enzyme and its Substrate Fitting into the
Active Site
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• Enzymes are affected by pH, temperature,
  substrate concentration, and enzyme concentration

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Most Enzymes Cant Function if its too Hot or
too Cold
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Most Enzymes Function in the Neutral Zone (pH of
7)
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• Buffers are chemicals that regulate pH to
  maintain homeostasis (keeping the same
  environment)

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HEREDITYDescribe the basic structure of the
nucleic acids deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA)

• Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides
• Nitrogen base sugar phosphate

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• Nucleotides bond in long chains to form RNA
  and DNA

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• State the 3 structural differences between
• RNA and DNA
• RNA contains ribose DNA contains deoxyribose
• DNA contains adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine
  (G), and cytosine (C) RNA contains A, G, C, and
  uracil (U)
• DNA is double stranded (double helix) RNA is
  single stranded (single helix)

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Summarize the relationship between DNA, genes,
and chromosomes

• Chromosome structure in the nucleus consisting
  of one long thread of DNA that is tightly coiled
  around special proteins called histones
• DNA molecule composed of nucleotides, providing
  the blueprint for the making of proteins

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• Gene segment of DNA with the genetic code for
  making one protein
• Chromosomes are made of DNA (and protein), in
  which small segments code for the amino acid
  sequence of a protein

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• Summarize DNA Replication

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• Enzyme unwinds DNA
• Enzymes breaks hydrogen bonds holding pairs bases
  together
• Another enzyme bonds new DNA nucleotides to each
  strand
• Each identical DNA molecule has ½ the original
  strand and ½ of a new strand

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• Summarize transcription
• Transcription is the synthesis of RNA
• Transcription occurs in the nucleus

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Transcription
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• The two complementary strands of DNA separate by
  breaking the hydrogen bonds between paired bases
• An enzyme bonds RNA nucleotides to one DNA strand
• T bonds to G and A (on DNA) bonds to U (on RNA)

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Summarize the steps of translation

• Translation the making of protein
• Proteins are made by forming peptide bonds
  between amino acids in long chains

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Amino acids bond by making peptide bonds

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The Genetic Code
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• Translation begins with mRNA attaching to a
  ribosome
• The first codon on mRNA is read (usually AUG) and
  the tRNA with the codons corresponding anticodon
  brings an amino acid to the ribosome
• The codon on mRNA is complementary to the
  anticodon on tRNA bond

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• A second codon is read and a second tRNA, also
  carrying the corresponding amino acid, attaches
  to the codon
• The two amino acids bond together
• The first tRNA breaks away from the mRNA and the
  mRNA slides down to read the next codon

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• This continues until one of the stop codons is
  reached
• The long chain of amino acids is a polypeptide
• Once the polypeptide folds up on itself and is
  processed by the Golgi, the protein is complete

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• Explain how our study of heredity is used in
  modern genetics
• Genetic engineering putting genes from one
  organism into another can create drought
  resistant plants, higher crop yields, medicine
  like human insulin, pest-resistant plants

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• The Human Genome Projects goal was to sequence
  human DNA instead of finding genes one at a time
  project completed in 2003

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• Gene maps show where genes are located on
  chromosomes

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• Clones are genetic copies it may occur naturally
  (identical twins) or by human intervention
  cloning could produce organs for transplant or
  save endangered species
• Gene mutations could be cured through gene
  therapy, in which corrected versions of genes are
  inserted (sickle cell, Tay-Sacs, cystic fibrosis)

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• Stem cells are undifferentiated cells research
  could lead to cures for diseases or ways to
  replaced damaged body parts stem cells can be
  adult or embryonic
• Selective breeding is artificially selecting
  organisms to breed for traits we want all
  domesticated plants and animals were created by
  selective breeding the disadvantage is the
  descendants come from a few ancestors that may
  have had undesirable genes (for ex deafness is
  common in dalmatians)

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• Hybridization is another type of selective
  breeding in which two closely related species are
  bred the offspring can often have the best
  traits of both donkeys and horses mate to have
  mules

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• Summarize the steps of meiosis
• Meiosis is very similar to mitosis exceptions
  in meiosis, the daughter cells divide twice
  instead of once, crossing over occurs during
  prophase I (mixes up genes), chromatids dont
  separate until anaphase II, all 4 daughter cells
  are genetically different, cells are haploid (1
  chromosome per pair)

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Summarize Mendels Genetics Principles

• Principle of Dominance and Recessiveness some
  genes can hide or mask others
• Law of Segregation Mendels genetics principle
  that states that genes in pairs separate during
  gamete formation and gene pairs are reformed
  during fertilization
• Law of Independent Assortment genes are
  inherited separately and that creates a variety
  in a population

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• Work problems using Punnett squares to
  illustrate the following inheritance patterns
  monohybrids, dihybrids, sex-linked, multiple
  alleles, polygenic traits, codominance, and
  incomplete dominance
• Monohybrid crosses Punnett squares showing one
  trait at a time

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Monohybrid Cross

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• Dihybrid Crosses Punnett squares showing 2
  traits 16 square Punnett squares

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• On a dihybrid cross, if both parents are doubly
  heterozygous, the ratio in the offspring is
  9331

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• Sex-linked genes found on the sex chromosomes
  in humans, females have 2 X chromsomes (2 genes)
  and males have 1 X chromosome and 2 Y (they have
  1 gene)
• Example hemophilia and Duchenne muscular
  dystrophy

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• Multiple Alleles more than 2 alleles (forms of
  a gene)
• Example blood types in humans there are 3
  alleles instead of 2 A gene, B gene, and O gene

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• Codominance 2 different alleles that are both
  dominant, so in a heterozygous gene pair, both
  traits show up
• Example A and B genes in human blood type
  if a person is AB genotype, they make both A and
  B proteins and have blood type AB

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• Incomplete Dominance heterozygous genotype
  gives a different phenotype
• Example red and white genes in Japanese four
  oclocks a red gene paired with a white gene
  makes a pink flower

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• Polygenic Traits traits controlled by more than
  one pair of genes example human skin color and
  human height

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• Explain gene linkage
• Discovered after Mendel states that if genes are
  on the same chromosome and located close
  together, they are often inherited together
• Example red hair and freckles in people
• Seems to violate Mendels independent principle,
  but as long as genes are on different chromosomes
  or found far apart on the same chromosome, his
  principle holds true

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• Give examples of both chromosomal and gene
  mutations
• Chromosomal mutations affect a large part of a
  chromosome and therefore all of the genes on that
  section of the chromosome
• Gene mutations only affect one gene and
  therefore, one protein

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• Deletion mutations deletion of a section of
  chromosome or one small section of a gene
• Example cystic fibrosis is a deletion
  mutation in which 3 bases are deleted from a gene
  for a transport protein for Cl-

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• Substitution mutations one base gets
  substituted for another one
• Example in sickle cell, one base substitution
  in the gene for hemoglobin causes abnormally
  shaped red blood cells

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• Nondisjunction mutations chromatids or homologs
  fail to separate during meiosis example Downs
  syndrome is caused from an extra 21st chromosome

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• Discuss possible causes of mutations to include
  natural (random) and environmentally induced.
• Mutations can occur naturally during DNA
  replication, cell division, or caused by
  naturally occurring substances in the environment
  (radon from the ground, UV radiation from the
  sun, for example).

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• Mutations can also be caused by manmade or
  synthetic substances, such as Agent Orange,
  biological warfare chemicals, pesticides, and
  radiation.

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• Explain the difference between a mutation in a
  somatic cell and one in a sex cell.
• Somatic mutations take place in cells of the body
  (skin, muscle, etc.) and are not passed on to
  offspring
• Germ cell mutations occur in sex cells and are
  passed from parent to offspring

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• Identify some common mutations
• Sickle cell anemia mutation in gene for
  hemoglobin causes abnormally shaped red blood
  cells autosomal (not found on sex chromosomes)
  recessive

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• Tay-Sachs mutation in a gene for an enzyme that
  functions in the breakdown of a protein in
  neurons autosomal recessive
• Cystic fibrosis mutation in a Cl- transport
  protein autosomal recessive
• Hemophilia mutation in gene for blood clotting
  sex-linked

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• Huntingtons progressive nervous deterioration
  symptoms dont occur until middle age inherited
  as an autosomal dominant gene

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• Albinism mutated gene for pigments white hair
  white skin usually pink eyes

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Mutations caused by nondisjunction

• Downs extra 21st chromosome
• Klinefelters extra X chromosome males XXY
• Turners missing X chromosome females XO

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Interpret pedigrees to determine how a trait is
inherited in a family
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How is this trait inherited?
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How is this trait inherited?
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EVOLUTION

• Define evolution
• Changes that have transformed life on Earth
  from the earliest beginnings to the diversity of
  organisms in the world today

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• Explain factors that increase genetic
  variability in a population
• Sexual reproduction causes an increase in genetic
  variability by recombining genes from two
  different parents
• Mutations increase genetic variability to
  creating new DNA base sequences

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• Crossing over increases genetic variability by
  causing a wider diversity in gametes
• Genetic drift random change in a population
• Gene flow movement of genes into or out of the
  population

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Summarize the Hardy-Weinberg Principle

• Evolution can be measured by determining gene
  frequency (how often does a gene appear in a
  population) if it changes, evolution has taken
  place.
• If there is no change in the gene frequency of a
  population, it is in genetic equilibrium

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• To maintain genetic equilibrium, a population
  must meet 5 conditions
• (1) Population is large.
• (2) No movement into or out of the
• population
• (3) random mating
• (4) no mutations
• (5) no natural selection (all genotypes
• have equal chance of survival)

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Explain the process of speciation

• Speciation is the process of forming a new
  species
• New species form when organisms in the population
  are isolated so that the new population is
  prevented from reproducing with the original
  population

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• Isolation can be
• temporal species cant interbreed (might
• breed during different times)
• behavioral courtship behaviors keep
• species separated
• geographic islands, bodies of water,
• mountain ranges, etc. separate species

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Summarize patterns of evolution

• Gradualism species change over long periods of
  time, such as a gradual trend toward a larger
  beak or color of fur
• Punctuated equilibrium period of abrupt changes
  after long periods of time with little change

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• Adaptive radiation (divergent evolution) a
  number of different species branch or split off a
  common ancestor
• Convergent evolution evolution among different
  groups of organisms living in similar
  environments produce species that are similar in
  behavior or appearance
• Coevolution two or more species living in close
  proximity change in response to each other

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• Extinction elimination of a species when they
  cannot adapt to a change in the environment
• Extinction can be
• (1) gradual decline in numbers over
• long periods of time
• (2) mass extinction caused by a
• catastrophic event (such as volcanic
• eruption, fire, or a meteor hitting the
• earth)

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• Define carrying capacity
• The largest number of individuals in a population
  that the environment can hold theres enough
  food, space, shelter, water, nutrients, etc. to
  allow that many individuals to survive
• Causes a competition among organisms

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Graph showing carrying capacity
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• Distinguish between microevolution and
  macroevolution.
• Microevolution is small changes in a population
  that take place quickly example change in
  color of peppered moths
• Macroevolution is the accumulation of small
  changes over a long period of time that can cause
  speciation

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• Compare and contrast analogous, homologous,
  and vestigial structures and their role in
  determining evolutionary relationships.
• Analogous structures structures with the same
  function, but not of common descent examples
  bird wings and insect wings

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• Homologous structures similarity in structure
  due to common ancestry example forelimbs of
  human, alligator, bat, and gorilla

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• Vestigial structures parts of an organism with
  no apparent function today
• Example appendix in humans pelvic bones in
  whales eyes in blind fish that live in dark caves

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• Explain how fossils provide evidence of change
  over time.
• Some organisms leave traces (imprints of skin or
  leaves, bones, etc.) which provide information
  about what they looked like, etc. when they lived

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• Describe how DNA base sequence and amino acid
  sequences provide evidence of common ancestry and
  change over time.
• The number of DNA base sequences and amino acid
  sequences two organisms have in common
  demonstrate how closely related they are

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• For example, humans and dogs have more DNA
  sequences in common than humans and ferns.
• The hemoglobin of humans and gorillas have more
  amino acids in common than humans and frogs.

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• Discuss how examination of embryological
  features can provide evidence of common ancestry
  and change over time.
• Animal embryos can be examined to identify common
  structures.

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25 week old human embryo
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• Explain that natural selection is the process
  responsible for evolution.
• Organisms produce many more offspring than can
  survive. Because there is a variety in the
  population, those more adapted survive and pass
  those favorable traits to their offspring.
• Survival of the fittest

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• Explain why traits that do not confer
  advantage may or may not disappear over time.
• Recessive genes are always present in a
  population example people with Tay-Sachs die
  before reaching elementary school age, so they
  never reproduce Tay-Sachs children continue to
  be born because of heterozygous parents (they are
  carriers and have the recessive gene)

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• Describe the process by which fossils are
  formed.
• Remains are covered by soil that forms into
  sedimentary rock insects get trapped in tree sap
  to make amber organisms are frozen imprints are
  made in wet soil that harden into rock

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• Discuss the significance of The Origin of
  Species.
• Charles Darwin made an excellent argument for
  evolution caused by natural selection based on
  the evidence he collected from the Galapagos
  Islands and it changed the study of evolution.

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• Name the 6 kingdoms most commonly used for
  classification and give the basic characteristics
  of each.
• Archaea prokaryotes that live in harsh
  environments unicellular
• Bacteria prokaryotes unicellular
• Protista mostly unicellular eukaryotes
• Fungi mostly multicellular eukaryotes
  heterotrophs nonmobile cell walls

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• Plantae all multicellular eukaryotes immobile
  autotrophs cell walls
• Animalia all multicellular eukaryotes mobile
  heterotrophs most have nerve cells

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• Create a phylogenetic tree

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• ECOLOGY
• Describe what occurs during the carbon cycle to
  include the relationships between producers,
  consumers, decomposers, photosynthesis, and
  cellular respiration.

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• Describe what occurs during the nitrogen cycle
  to include nitrification, ammonification,
  assimilation, and denitrification.

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• Describe the role of nitrogen fixing organisms
  in the nitrogen cycle.
• Bacteria in the soil take nitrogen from the air
  and fix it they combine it with other elements
  to make nitrates or ammonia that plants that use.

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• Describe what occurs during the water cycle to
  include the role of plants and photosynthesis.

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• Determine that the sun is the ultimate source
  of energy on Earth.
• All living things get energy from food
  heterotrophs get energy from autotrophs that get
  their energy from the sun during photosynthesis.

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• Explain the role of producers and consumers in
  the ecosystem.
• Producers undergo photosynthesis and make food
  for all other organisms.
• Consumers eat plants or other consumers.
• This creates food chains and food webs.

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A Food Web
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• Relate the trophic levels in the ecosystem to
  pyramids of energy, numbers, and biomass.

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Pyramids of biomass and energy
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• Explain the flow of energy within a food chain
  and why energy transfer is not 100.
• Some energy in food is wasted as heat.
• Not all producers get eaten.
• Not all of an organism is eaten or digested.

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• Tell why there are limits to the numbers of
  consumers in a food chain.
• As consumers get energy from other consumers, the
  energy gets less and less, until there isnt
  enough energy for survival.

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• Explain why the producer level contains more
  biomass/unit area than consumers and why this is
  necessary.
• Consumers get energy from producers, so there
  must be more total mass of producers than any
  other organisms in a food chain.

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• Describe how birth and death rates affect
  population growth.
• If birth and death rates remain equal, there is
  zero population growth.
• If birth rates are high and death rates are low,
  the population will increase.

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• If birth rates are low and death rates are high,
  the population will decrease.

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Describe the ways in which human population
growth has affected the environment

• Food shortages
• Pollution of the environment
• Spread of diseases
• Decrease in available clean water
• Decrease in amount of fertile soil
• Increase in earths temperatures

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• Reduction of nonrenewable resources (such as oil
  and coal)
• Over-consumption of renewable resources

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• Explain the difference between abiotic and
  biotic factors.
• Biotic factors are the living parts of an
  ecosystem plants, fungi, bacteria, animals, etc.
• Abiotic factors are the nonliving parts
  nutrients in soil, sunlight, temperature, pH,
  wind, etc.

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• Define and describe different types of
  symbiosis
• Parasitism an organisms lives in or on another
  (the host) ticks feed on dogs, mistletoe feeds
  on a tree
• Commensalism two organisms live together one
  is benefited, while the other is neither helped
  nor harmed fish live within sea anemones
  tentacles

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• Mutualism two organisms live together and they
  both receive benefit from the relationship E.
  coli in the human intestine (human provides water
  and nourishment for the bacteria and the bacteria
  produce vitamin K for the human)

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• Define succession and give explanations for
  each step in the process

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• pioneer species the first plants and animals to
  grow
• climax community the ecosystem present at the
  end of succession could be a desert, forest,
  etc.

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• primary succession occurs where no soil exists,
  such as on volcanic islands, where glaciers melt,
  etc.
• secondary succession succession that occurs
  when land is disrupted land that is cleared for
  farming and abandoned, for example

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• Explain how human use of fossil fuels has
  contributed to global warming.

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• As fossil fuels, such as gasoline, oil, and coal
  are burned, they produce carbon dioxide that
  accumulates in the atmosphere, which prevents
  heat from escaping into space. This is
  increasing the temperature of the earth.

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• Explain the effect of CFCs on the destruction
  of the ozone layer.
• Chloroflurocarbons destroy the ozone layer that
  protect the earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV)
  radiation from the sun

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• Define acid rain in terms of pH and give
  sources of acid rain.
• The pH scale ranges from 0-14, with 7 being
  neutral. pH values below 7 are acidic, while
  values above 7 are alkaline or basic.
• When fossil fuels are burned, sulfur is given off
  and combines with oxygen to become sulfur
  dioxide, which is acidic.

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• ENERGY
• Define energy.
• Energy is the ability to do work.

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Write the overall equation for photosynthesis and
show where each reactant ends up on the product
side.
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• Describe what happens to the excited chlorophyll
  electrons as they cycle through the
  photosynthetic process.
• electrons in chlorophyll a molecules take in
  energy from light and become excited
• these electrons jump out of chlorophyll a

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• some of the energy in these excited electrons are
  used to produce ATP
• some of the energy is bonded to NADP to make
  NADPH these energized hydrogen electrons are
  used to make glucose during Calvin cycle (the
  dark reactions)

178

• Summarize the events of the light and dark
  reactions.

179

• the dark reactions occur in the stroma of the
  chloroplast
• carbon dioxide is taken in
• ATP from light reactions is used, along with the
  hydrogen atoms from NADH
• glucose is produced

180

• Explain why the dark reactions are dependent
  upon the light reactions
• In order for glucose to be made during the dark
  reactions, energy from ATP is required along with
  energized hydrogen electrons from NADH ATP and
  NADH are both produced during the light reactions

181

• State the role of chlorophyll and the
  chloroplast in the photosynthetic process
• chlorophyll is necessary to absorb the energy
  from the sun
• photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast
  light reactions occur in thylakoids dark
  reactions occur in the stroma

182

• Explain the significance of the splitting of
  water during photosynthesis
• as electrons get excited and jump out of
  chlorophyll a, they are replaced by splitting
  water and getting hydrogen electrons
• oxygen is given off as a waste product

183

• Write the overall equation for cellular
  respiration, identifying the reactants and
  products.
• C6H12O6 6O2 ?6CO2 6H2O
• reactants products

184

• Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic
  respiration, and state the conditions under which
  each occurs.
• aerobic respiration requires oxygen
• anaerobic respiration does not

185

• glycolysis, Krebs, and electron transport occur
  during aerobic respiration
• only glycolysis occurs during anaerobic
  respiration
• the net ATP yield of anaerobic is 2ATP molecules
  the net yield of aerobic is 38 ATPs

186

• Describe the role of the mitchondria during in
  aerobic respiration.
• Krebs cycle and electron transport take place in
  the mitochondria

187

• Define glycolysis and tell why it occurs in
  all organisms.
• glycolysis is the break down of glucose into two
  pyruvic acid molecules
• it occurs in the cytoplasm
• since glycolysis occurs in both aerobic and
  anaerobic respiration, it occurs in all organisms

188
Glycolysis
189

• Differentiate alcohol and lactic acid
  fermentation.
• both types of anaerobic respiration
• pyruvic acid is converted into ethyl alcohol or
  lactic acid
• alcohol fermentation occurs in some organisms
• lactic acid fermentation occurs in aerobes with
  small amounts of oxygen

190

• Describe the overall process of the Krebs
  cycle
• all the original glucose is oxidized during
  Krebs
• CO2 is produced
• Excited H electrons bond to NAD to form NADH

191

• Describe what happens during the electron
  transport chain and chemiosmosis

192

• NADH and FADH2 molecules give up their energized
  H electrons
• the electrons travel down an electron transport
  chain located in the inner membrane (cristae)

193

• The energy from the H electrons is used to carry
  hydrogen protons to the other side of the
  membrane the protons diffuse back across through
  ATP synthase which bonds phosphates to ADP to
  produce ATP
• The H atoms bond to oxygen to produce water

194
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195

• Explain how the structures of organic molecules
  are related to their caloric values
• carbohydrates (sugars) and protein contain about
  4 calories per gram (energy found in the H-O
  bonds)
• fats contain about 9 calories per gram (more
  calories due to the H-O bonds present)

196

• Proteins have the same calories as carbohydrates,
  but are often not used as an energy source they
  are digested into amino acids to be used in
  protein synthesis

197

• Carbohydrates are used as an energy source by the
  human body first, then lipids
• Carbohydrates are simple sugars (monosaccharides)
  or complex sugars (polysaccharides)
• Carbohydrates are digested and carried through
  the blood to be used during respiration to make
  ATP
• Some carbohydrates cant be digested (fiber) and
  stimulate the digestive system

198

• Lipids (fats, oils, and waxes) are composed of
  glycerol and fatty acids
• Lipids are used as energy AFTER carbohydrates
  also used to make new cell membranes
• Blood carries the glycerol and fatty acids after
  digestion

199

• Proteins are composed of amino acids
• Amino acids contain C, H, O, N, and sometimes S
  atoms
• There are 20 different amino acids that bond in a
  particular sequence to make a protein
• Proteins make up most of the dry weight of an
  organism

200

• Proteins can be structural, such as proteins like
  keratin that make up hair and nails
• Proteins can transport molecules, such as
  hemoglobin that carries oxygen
• Most hormones are proteins, such as insulin that
  regulates glucose levels in the blood
• Contractile proteins control movement, such as
  proteins in muscles
• Enzymes are proteins

201

• Identify the 3 parts of ATP

202

• The high energy bonds are formed between the
  phosphate groups

203

• Show how ATP is recycled
• ADP phosphate group ? ATP
• ?
• When a phosphate group breaks off, energy is
  released.
• Energy has to be input to reattach the phosphate
  group to the adenosine diphosphate (ADP).

204

• The
• End!
• RFM 2003, revised 2012