RELIGIOUS REFORM AND STATE BUILDING IN EUROPE

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RELIGIOUS REFORM AND STATE BUILDING IN EUROPE

• Chapter 15

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Prelude to Reformation

• Beginning in the Late Middle Ages there was an
  increasing number of calls for the reform of the
  Catholic Church.
• Complaints about the corruption in the clergy
• Complaints about the excessive power of the Pope.
• What were the complaints?

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Christian Humanism

• Objections to structure and government of church?
• Objections to approach and role of priests?
• What did Christian Humanists believe about the
  power of individual Christians?
• Supported education in Christian Classics,
  schools and translation of the bible into the
  vernacular language of the people.

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Erasmus

• Most influential of the Christian humanists.
• The Handbook of the Christian Knight.
• What was his central thesis?
• In Praise of Folly
• His most famous work
• What was his basic message?
• Erasmus is considered to have laid much of the
  philosophical groundwork for the later
  reformation
• Did he want to divide the church?
• How did he feel about Luther?

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Church and Religion on the Eve of the Reformation

• Belief that the clergy was corrupt and
  incompetent.
• Focus on finances.
• Church offices purchased by wealthy.
• Sale of indulgences.
• Poor quality of parish priests

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Martin Luther

• Germany Monk, very spiritual, well educated.
• Professor in theology Lectured on the Bible.
• Concerned with the question of how one attained
  salvation.
• Churchs view
• Luthers view on salvation
• Luthers view on ultimate authority of religious
  truth.

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95 Theses

• Johann Tetzel. What did he do that angered
  Luther? Why was he doing it?
• Luthers objection to indulgences
• 95 Theses
• Luthers intent in publishing his Theses?
• Luthers 95 Theses were widely printed and
  circulated and resonated with many in Germany
• What did he ultimately call on German Princes to
  do?

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Luthers Views

• Salvation
• Source of Religious Truth
• Sacraments
• Celibacy of Priests
• Language of Mass
• Veneration of Saints

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Edict of Worms

• Luther is excommunicated in 1521
• Summoned before the imperial diet at Worms to
  appear before the newly-elected Holy Roman
  Emperor, Charles V
• What was Luther asked to do? How did he respond?
  
• Edict of Worms.
• What is it?

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Lutheranism Spreads

• Between 1521-1525 Luthers movement became a
  revolution.
• Many princes adopt Lutheranism and make state
  church
• How did structure of The Holy Roman Empire
  contribute to its spread?
• Spreads to Scandinavia.
• Luther creates a new religious service for these
  churches.
• How does it differ from Catholic service?
• Mid-1520s the reform movement undergoes growing
  pains as dissenters try to espouse views of their
  own.
• Many conservative Christian humanists abandon the
  movement. Why?

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German Peasant Revolts

• Peasants in Germany revolted in 1524 and looked
  to Luther for support.
• Why did they revolt?
• How did Lutheranism contribute to their revolt
• What did Luther do?
• Why?

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Politics and Religion in the German Reformation

• Germany was a loosely affiliated group of
  Principalities, free imperial cities, and
  ecclesiastical principalities.
• All pledged loyalty to the Holy Roman Emperor,
  whom they elected,
• States had gained a great deal of independence
  from the Emperor and they wanted to keep it.
• How did this contribute to adoption of
  Lutheranism by Princes?

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Charles V

• Charles V (Hapsburg) was heir to the Spanish
  throne (as Charles I)
• He ruled over a far-flung empire.
• Spain and its possessions,
• Hapsburg territories of Austria, Hungary, Bohemia
  and the Low Countries.
• Also, selected as the Holy Roman Emperor, which
  had traditionally gone to the Hapsburgs.
• He wanted to stamp out Lutheranism and exert
  stronger control over the princes, but he had
  other problems.

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Charles Frustration

• Charles wanted to preserve Catholic unity in his
  empire, but had to deal with other problems.
  What are they?
• War with France that lasted from 1521 until 1544
  and
• Incursions in the east from the Turks.
• The Pope (Clement VII) had sided with the French
  King,

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Peace of Augsburg

• By the time Charles V was able to bring military
  forces to Germany Lutheranism had taken hold and
  princes were unified and organized.
• Forced to enter into the Peace of Augsburg
• Terms?
• Did it create religious tolerance?
• Consequences for Lutheranism

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Zwinglianism

• New flavors of Protestantism emerged in Europe.
  Switzerland was the heart of two other movements.
• Zwinglianism.
• Founded by Ulrich Zwingli. Starting in 1518 he
• preached in Zurich.
• What was his basic doctrine?
• What is key difference with Lutheranism?
• Zwingli is killed and Zwinglianism is defeated in
  Swiss civil war in 1531 between Catholic and
  Protestant states.

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Calvinism

• After the death Zwingli, protestant leadership in
  Switzerland passed to John Calvin.
• 1536 Institutes of Christian Religion puts him at
  the forefront of Protestantism.
• Similarities and differences with Lutheranism?
• Predestination
• the elect vs. the reprobates

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Spread of Calvinism

• Became a relatively militant and unforgiving
  doctrine. American Puritans were Calvinists.
• 1536 Calvin creates a Calvinist theocracy in
  Geneva.
• Consistory
• What is it?
• What are its policies?
• Geneva became the center of Protestantism in
  Europe and Calvinism becomes the dominant
  Protestant faith.

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Spread of Calvinism

• John Knox, spreads Calvinism to Scotland.
  Presbyterian Church.
• Spreads to FranceHuguenots. Netherlands and
  eastern Europe.
• By the mid-16th century Calvinism had replaced
  Lutheranism as the militant form of Protestantism.

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English Reformation

• Henry VIII, the Defender of the Faith.
• Wife is Catherine of Aragon had only one
  surviving child, Mary Tudor.
• Henry VIII wanted a divorce. Why?
• He applied to the Pope for an annulment.
• What did the Pope say? Why?
• How does Henry respond?

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Act of Supremacy

• Act of Supremacy.
• What does it say?
• What political advantages for Henry?
• Thomas Cranmer appointed Archbishop, Annuls
  Henrys Marriage
• Cranmers Goals?
• Henrys Response?
• Anglican Church
• Differences with Catholicism
• Anne Boleyn . Elizabeth

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Edward VI

• 1547 Henry VIII dies
• Succeeded by Edward VI (only 10)
• Turmoil swept England.
• Scotland invaded
• peasant violence.
• Edward dominated by devout Protestants who pushed
  for Calvinist reforms.
• Cranmer --Book of Common Prayer
• How does Cranmer change doctrine of Anglican
  Church?

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Mary Tudor 1553-1558

• Mary Tudor inherits the throne when Edward dies
  in his teens
• Determined to make England Catholic again.
• What does she do regarding religious doctrine?
• How does parliament react?
• Parliament would not support the return of church
  lands to the church.
• Called Bloody Mary. Why?
• What did she do to her half-sister, Elizabeth?

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Mary and Philip II

• Mary married Phillip II of Spain, son of Charles
  V and future king of Spain.
• This caused an uprising in England. Why?
• Led to plot to depose her.
• Opposition to Mary made England more Protestant
  than it had been before heir reign
• 1558 Queen Elizabeth takes the throne when Mary
  dies.
• She reigns for 45 years

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Anabaptists

• Groups in England that favored radical religious
  reform.
• Religious Beliefs?
• Should return to Christianity as it was practiced
  at time of Christ.
• No formal priestsall believers were priests and
  each church should select among themselves.
• No formalized structured service.
• Rejected formalized theology in favor of living
  in accordance with the word of Christ and bible.
• Rejected infant baptism in favor of adult baptism
  
• Believed in the complete separation of Church and
  State.
• Refused to hold political office or to bear arms.
• Both Protestants and Catholics thought they were
  dangerous.

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Impact of Reformation on Family

• End of celibate priests vaults status of family
• Role of men
• How is position of women reduced?

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Reformation Makes Life More Stern

• Reformation led to radical changes in religious
  practices that spilled over into daily life and
  culture.
• Indulgences, veneration of saints, holy days,
  veneration of relics all gone
• Protestant services where much plainer. Much
  more emphasis on scripture, the sermon and
  prayer.
• Some reformers tried to impose harsh restrictions
  on social entertainments.
• Calvinists in England (Puritans) tried to close
  the pubs, theaters and dance halls.
• Dutch Calvinists tried to do away with the giving
  of gifts at the feast of St. Nicholas (Christmas).

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THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION

• By the middle of the 16th Century the Catholic
  church had suffered severe setbacks
• Germany, Scandinavia, Switzerland, France, the
  Netherlands and much of eastern Europe had become
  Protestant
• Church tries to reform itself to compete strongly
  against the Protestant tide.
• Led to the Catholic Reformation.
• Three pillars to the Catholic reformation
• Development of the Jesuits
• Reformed and revived Papacy
• Council of Trent

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Society of JesusJesuits

• Jesuits were a military order founded by Ignatius
  of Loyola, a former Spanish soldier.
• Highly disciplined, tightly knit religious order
  dedicated to rolling back Protestantism and
  spreading the Catholic faith.
• Jesuits took a vow of absolute obedience to the
  Pope.
• Were the Churchs shock troops.
• Were like a military organization in discipline
  and organization.
• What did Loyola see as the cause of the
  reformation?

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Jesuits

• Jesuit monks underwent more training than
  ordinary priests and pledge to travel anywhere to
  serve Christ
• Jesuit schools
• Curriculum
• Who did they focus education on?
• Jesuits gained great power as the spiritual
  directors to kings.
• Were successful in restoring Catholicism in parts
  of Germany and eastern Europe.
• Also active in converting pagans. Especially
  active in the new world

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Reformed Papacy

• The Renaissance Popes undermined the authority
  or and respect for the Pope
• The Protestant reformation was a jolt that
  prompted reform in the nature of the Papacy.
• Pope Paul III became Pope in 1549 and began
  reform within the Vatican,
• What did he do?
• What conclusions did the council reach

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Council of Trent

• Met intermittently between 1545 and 1563 to
  determine whether to reform doctrine and
  practices.
• What did Reform-minded Catholics want? What was
  their goal?
• When Protestant leaders insisted that scripture
  was the sole source of religious teaching, this
  was a non-starter. Hope of reconciliation died.
• What did conservatives want?
• Which side won out?
• Council did make a number of reforms in practices
  and procedures

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Council of Trent-Doctrinal Statement

• Scripture AND tradition were affirmed as equal
  authorities in religious matters
• Only the church could interpret Scripture
  (Protestants believed that laymen should read and
  interpret the bible)
• Faith AND Good works were necessary for
  salvation.
• Seven sacraments, doctrine of transubstantiation
  and clerical celibacy were affirmed.
• Belief in purgatory and the efficacy of
  indulgences affirmed.

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Procedural and Administrative changes

• Bishops required to reside in their own dioceses
  suppressed pluralism
• Forbade the sale of indulgences
• Clerics had to give up concubines
• Each diocese required to establish a seminary
  preference given to the sons of the poor.
• Seminary professors were to determine whether
  candidates for ordination had the vocation

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Inquisition

• In 1542 Pope Paul III established the Sacred
  Congregation of the Holy Office with jurisdiction
  over the Roman Inquisition.
• It had judicial authority over all Catholics and
  the power to arrest, imprison and execute.
• Its mission was to vigorously attack heresy.
• Published an Index of Prohibited Books
• Influence was strong within the papal states and
  strongly catholic nations such as France and
  Spain.
• Outside the papal territories its influence was
  more modest

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The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)

• French Civil Wars had two intertwined causes
  Religion and struggle between crown and nobles.
• Fight between the Catholic majority and the
  Huguenot (Calvinist) minority.
• Battle between the ruling Valois-Bourbon house
  and the nobles over how much power the monarchy
  would have.
• Huguenots came from all layers of society
  including the nobility.
• Proportion of Huguenots among the nobility was
  much higher than in the population as a whole.

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House of Bourbon

• Why were so many nobles Huguenots?
• House of Bourbon became Huguenots.
• Next to the Valois in the royal line of
  succession.
• Rules the southern French kingdom of Navarre.
• The Valois monarchy is staunchly Catholic.
• Because it has control of the church, it has
  little incentive to give Protestants a break.

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Ultra-Catholics

• During the period a militantly Catholic group
  emergedultra-Catholics. Favored strict
  opposition to the Huguenots.
• Ultra-Catholics had loyalty of large sections of
  the country,
• Received money and support from the papacy and
  the Jesuits.

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French Civil Wars

• St. Bartholomews Day Massacre, 8/24/1572
• Civil Wars retarded Frances development as an
  international and colonial power
• Wars lasted for 30 years.

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Resolution of French Civil Wars

• Who are the politiques? What do they argue?
• Views began to prevail
• In 1589 Henry of Navarre succeeds to the crown
• How?
• He is from House of Bourbon and leader of the
  Huguenots
• What does he do to get the nation to accept him
  and end the Civil War?
• Edict of Nantes (1598)
• Catholicism is the official religion of France
• Huguenots guaranteed freedom of worship and right
  to all political privileges.
• Huguenots have the right to fortify their castles
  and towns.

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Phillip II and the Cause of Militant Catholicism

• Phillip II --son of Charles V (HRE).
• Charles abdicates in 1556. Why?
• He divided his empire between his younger brother
  Ferdinand, who gets Holy Roman Empire and Austria
  and his son Phillip, who gets Spain, Netherlands
  and New World possessions.
• Phillips goals
• Strengthen the central monarchy in Spain
• Exert stronger authority over his territories.
• Strengthen power of Church and beat back
  Protestantism..

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Phillip II

• Spain is a strongly Catholic nation. See
  themselves as nation chosen to protect
  Christianity from Protestantism.
• Phillip becomes the greatest advocate of militant
  Catholicism and ushers in an age of Spanish
  greatness and power.
• Insists on strict conformity to Catholicism and
  adherence to dictates of monarchy
• Holy League and Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Who
  do they defeat?

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Spanish Netherlands

• Spanish Netherlands were very important to Spain.
  Why?
• Phillips attempt to strengthen Spains control
  over the area led to revolt. Why?
• Violence erupts in 1566 when Calvinists destroy
  Catholic Churches.
• Phillip sends in 10,000 troops under the Duke of
  Alva
• William of Orange.
• English Aid to Netherlands

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Netherlands

• 1609 truce ends the war
• Virtually guarantees the independence of the
  northern provinces, (United Provinces)
• Core of modern Dutch Netherlands.
• Spain retains the 10 southern provinces (modern
  Belgium)

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The England of Elizabeth

• Elizabeth I took the throne of England in 1558
  and ruled for 45 years.
• Considered one of the best British Monarchs.
• Under her reign England went from a relatively
  poor, second-tier country to the leader of
  Protestant Europe
• Powerful maritime power poised to create a vast
  empire.

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Religious Reforms

• Elizabeths first problem was to try to heal he
  wounds in her country over religion.
• What is Elizabeths approach?
• What does she do to pursue this approach?
• Repeals the anti-Protestant laws of Mary
• Passed a new Act of Supremacy making the monarch
  the only supreme governor of both the Church and
  State.
• Modified the church service to meet some of the
  objections of Catholicsmade less Protestant

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Elizabeth and Foreign Policy

• Elizabeth had to steer a careful course in
  foreign policy.
• Why?
• Elizabeth was pressed by her advisors to make a
  political marriage. Why?
• She rejected these calls. Why?
• How did she use her unmarried status as a
  diplomatic weapon?
• Using this and other diplomatic maneuvers, she
  kept England neutral and unencumbered by
  alliances that would force England into war.
• Virgin Queen.

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Elizabeth Tweaks France and Spain

• Elizabeth provided clandestine help to both the
  Dutch Calvinists and French Huguenots. Why?
• Commissioned privateers to raid Spanish treasure
  ships returning from the New World. Why?

Golden Hinde
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Conflict with Spain

• Phillip II ultimately decided to invade England
• Reasons
• Believed that revolt in Netherlands would never
  be put down while England was aiding them.
• Irritated by privateering
• Wanted to claim England back for the Pope.
• Believed that if Spanish troops appeared in
  England the people would rise up in support of
  Catholic liberators.

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Spanish Armada

• Phillips Plan
• Create a powerful armada of 150 ships to destroy
  and dominate England in the North Atlantic
• Invade with troops from Netherlands.
• On paper, England appears to be in serious
  trouble.
• What advantage to the English have? What is the
  key to Spanish naval strategy?
• How does the weather aid England?
• Armada suffers severe defeat and is forced to
  sail home.

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England Ascendant

• Huge psychological impact.
• Brits see this as Gods divine will stepping in
  to protect them.
• Makes them feel powerful.
• Beginning of English view that destined to be a
  major power.
• Is the beginning of long decline for Spanish.
• While they quickly rebuild their fleet domination
  of the Atlantic is at an end.
• English now able to begin to try to colonize New
  World.
• Strong negative psychological impact on Spanish.
  Why?
• Phillip II has depleted the Spanish treasury in
  battles against Turks, Dutch and English.
• Spain is spread very thinly with its many
  over-seas possessions.

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Social Upheaval in Europe

• Between 1560 and 1650 Europe suffered economic
  and social crises as well as political upheaval.
  In addition to the religious turmoil and wars,
  other factors contributed.
• Economy began to retract.
• Italy, which had been an economic hot-bed of
  trade during the renaissance period was eclipsed
  by Atlantic powers.
• Spains fortunes declined.
• Mini-ice age after middle of 1500s hurt
  agriculture, leading to dislocation of farmers
  and intermittent food shortages.
• Results in leveling and even slight decline in
  the population of Europe after 150 years of grow
  following the period of the Black Death.

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Witchcraft Craze

• Economic and Social upheaval results in social
  tensions that manifest themselves in witchcraft
  craze.
• Causes?
• As many as 100,000 trials
• Who was most frequently accused? Why?

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The Thirty Years War (1618-1648)

• Last of the religious wars, but also dynasty
  rivalry and balance of power.
• King of Bohemia and the big pile of dung
• Started in the Holy Roman Empire
• Causes?
• Protestant Union
• Catholic League
• Austrian and Catholic Hapsburgs v. French Burbons

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Four Phases of War

• First phase
• civil war in Bohemia as Bohemians fought for
  independence from Austrian Hapsburg rule.
• Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II totally defeated
  Protestant forces.
• Second PhaseDanish Phase
• Denmark intervenes to support Protestant forces.
  Catholics role up victories.
• Third PhaseSwedish Phase
• Swedish King intervened to support the Protestant
  cause.
• Decisive for the Protestants and ended Hapsburg
  ambition of uniting all the German states under
  imperial authority.

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Four Phases of War

• Fourth PhaseFrench/International phase
• Death of Swedish King prompts French to enter the
  war to ensure that HRE does not remain strong.
• France declares war on Spain and sends assistance
  to protestant forces in Germany.
• War drags on with French, Dutch and Swedes,
  supported by Scots, Finns and German mercenaries
  burning, looting and destroying German
  agriculture and commerce.

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• War devastates Germany.
• 1/3 of urban and 40 of rural population
  destroyed.
• Economy ravaged.

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Peace of Westphalia1648

• Terms
• End of HRE as real political entity. Each of the
  German princes recognized as sovereign,
  independent authority
• Independence of United Provinces of the
  Netherlands acknowledged.
• France gets Alsace, increasing its size and
  prestige.
• France allowed to intervene at will in German
  affairs.
• Pope denied the right to intervene in German
  affairs.
• Portugal recognized as independent of Spain.
• France emerges as the dominant nation in Europe.

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