Vocational Education Since 1900

1
Vocational Education Since 1900
2
The Need

• The public was disenchanted with the school
  system in the early 1900s.
• Schools were out-of-touch with the realities of
  the real world
• There was a need for a different type of
  education

3
Another Need

• Farmers needed systematic help to fight their
  problems (such as the boll weevil)
• The once a year Farmers Institute was not enough
• The competing programs offered by state boards of
  agriculture, the General Education Board,
  universities and agricultural societies was
  merely a hodge podge of activity
• Simply put, there was a need for something like
  the Extension Service.

4
First stirrings.extension

• Farm Demonstration Work in the South to fight the
  boll weevil and the subsequent hiring of county
  agents by the General Education Board was the
  start of extension.

5
Early Efforts to Organize Support

• Governor Douglas of Massachusetts appointed a
  commission to study schools in that state.
• In 1906 the Douglas Commission recommended that
  vocational education be added to the school
  curriculum.

6
Precursors to the Smith Acts

• Burkett-Pollard Bill (NE) (1906)
• sought federal aid for the teaching of
  agriculture in normal (teacher training) schools
• Clay-Livingston Bill (GA) - 1907
• sought federal aid to establish an agricultural
  high school in each congressional district in the
  United States

7
Precursorscont..

• Nelson Amendment (1907)
• Amendment to the Morrill Act of 1890
• provided 5,000 for five years, 25,000 annually
  after five year to land-grant colleges for
  general support.
• One special provision of the amendment opened
  the door to prepare teachers of agriculture . .
  .

8
Nelson Amendment

• money could be used for providing courses for
  the special preparation of instructors for
  teaching the elements of agriculture and the
  mechanical arts.
• summer school sessions for teachers were utilized
  extensively (especially elementary teachers)
• some 4 year teacher training in agriculture
  started

9
Precursors

• Davis Bill (MN) (1907)
• sought federal support for secondary school
  instruction in agriculture, home economics and
  the mechanical arts and branch experiment
  stations

10
Precursors

• McLaughlin Bill (1909)
• sought federal support for extension work
• Dolliver (IA)-Davis (MN) Bill (1910)
• sought federal support for extension work and
  secondary vocational education (Dolliver
  submitted two bills one for extension, one for
  vocational education but they were combined by
  the Senate Ag Committee. Things looked good for
  the bill but Dolliver unexpectedly died)

11
Precursors

• Page Bill (1911, 1912, 1913)
• sought federal support for extension work, branch
  experiment stations and secondary vocational
  education (this was basically the Dolliver bill)
• The bill never passed for a variety of reasons
• bills tried to accomplish too much, which divided
  the support
• Some folks supported extension but not vocational
  education and vice versa
• Page was not very skilled as a legislator

12
The Incompetent Senator!

• Carroll S. Page (VT)

13
Senator Page
The Morrill Act has proven to be the beginning
for really carrying vocational education to the
masses of our people.
14
Precursors

• Smith-Lever Bill (1912)
• goal was to establish the extension service
• This competed with the Page Bill
• The Great Compromise
• The supporters of vocational education would
  support the Smith-Lever Bill. In return, a
  Commission on National Aid to Vocational
  Education would be created to study the need for
  federal funding for vocational education.

15
Finally!!

• Smith-Lever Act (1914)
• established the extension service

16
Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education

• As part of the compromise, the Commission was
  stacked with supporters of Vocational Education
• The Commission collected data and held hearings
• The Commission reported there was a need for
  vocational education in the schools and that it
  should be federally funded.
• It took some time for the bill they drafted to
  pass because of issues surrounding World War I.
  (Charles Prosser, a committee member wrote the
  legislation. Smith and Hughes didnt)

17
Finally!!

• Smith-Hughes Act (1917)
• provided federal funds to support vocational
  education in the public schools

18
The Smith Acts
19
Smith-Lever Provisions

• there may be inaugurated in connection with the
  (land-grant) college or colleges...agricultural
  extension work which shall be carried on in
  cooperation with the United States Department of
  Agriculture

20
Smith-Lever Provisions

• ...in any State in which two or more such
  colleges have been or hereafter may be
  established, the appropriations hereinafter made
  to such State shall be administered by such
  college or colleges as the legislature of such
  State may direct

21
Smith-Lever Provisions

• That cooperative agricultural extension work
  shall consist of the giving of instruction and
  practical demonstrations in agriculture and home
  economics to persons not attending or resident in
  said colleges in the several communities, and
  imparting to such persons information on said
  subjects through field demonstrations,
  publications, and otherwise

22
Smith-Lever Provisions

• Each state was to receive ...10,000 of which
  shall be paid annually
• Additional funds were to be disbursed to states
  on the basis of the rural population of each
  State bears to the total rural population of all
  the States
• Note Legislators in the Midwest wanted the act
  to say farm population. The South had a much
  larger rural population than farm population.

23
Smith-Lever Provisions

• A state could not receive the additional funds
  ...until an equal sum has been appropriated for
  that year by the legislature of such State, or
  provided by State, county, college, local
  authority, or individual contributions from
  within the State, for the maintenance of the
  cooperative agricultural extension work provided
  for in this Act.

24
Smith-Lever Provisions

• That before the funds herein appropriated shall
  become available to any college for any fiscal
  year, plans for the work to be carried on under
  this Act shall be submitted by the proper
  officials of each college and approved by the
  Secretary of Agriculture

25
Smith-Lever Provisions

• ...no portion of said moneys shall be applied,
  directly or indirectly, to the purchase,
  erection, preservation, or repair of any building
  or buildings, or the purchase or rental of land,
  or in college-course teaching, lectures in
  colleges, promoting agricultural trains, or any
  other purpose not specified in this Act

26
Smith-Hughes Provisions

• The first paragraph of the Smith-Hughes Act
  contained four statements
• 1. to provide for the promotion of vocational
  education
• The word promotion is misleading, a more
  correct word would be establishment.

Tidbit Since the person (Charles Prosser) who
wrote the bill was Director of the National
Society for the Promotion of Industrial
Education, the word promotion might allude to
this organization
27
Smith-Hughes Provisions

• 2. to provide for cooperation with the States in
  the promotion of such education in agriculture
  and the trades and industries
• This statement defined what made up vocational
  education. Why is home economics not mentioned?
  The word home economics appears 17 other times in
  the Act. It is believed by some that home
  economics was not included in the earlier drafts
  of the bills. Legend has it that Prossers wife
  made him include home economics. The fact that it
  is missing here gives credence to that legend.
• Trades and industries covered a broad range of
  jobs.

28
Smith-Hughes Provisions

• 3. to provide for cooperation with the States in
  the preparation of teachers of vocational
  subjects
• There was much concern over the supply of
  qualified teachers. Two different paths were
  taken in regards to vocational teacher training
• Agriculture and Home Economics went with a 4 year
  college degree as a requirement. At that point in
  time, few public school teachers had four year
  degrees. This was designed to assure a quality,
  well-educated teacher and enhance the status of
  of the field.
• Trade and Industries chose to pull teachers out
  of industry. The belief was the master craftsman
  made the best teacher.

29
Smith-Hughes Provisions

• 4. and to appropriate money and regulate its
  expenditure.
• This wording as to the purpose of an act is a
  little strange. It should be self evident.

30
Smith-Hughes Funds

• Provided money to pay salaries of
• teachers, supervisors, and directors of
  agricultural subjects
• Tidbit Director is an unusual word until one
  notes that agricultural schools had been
  established prior to Smith-Hughes in
  Massachusetts. The person in charge of these
  schools was a Director. Since Prosser had been
  associate superintendent for vocational education
  in Massachusetts, this wording isnt that strange
  at all.

31
Smith-Hughes Funds

• Provided money to pay salaries of
• teachers of trade, home economics and industrial
  subjects (but no more than 20 of the total money
  allocated for this purpose could be spent in the
  area of home economics)
• Question Why could Smith-Hughes funds be used to
  pay salaries of supervisors and directors in
  agriculture but not in home economics or trades
  and industries?
• Question 2 Why was home economics limited to
  20?

32
Smith-Hughes

• Tidbit Teachers who received their salaries from
  the Smith-Hughes Act were often called
  Smith-Hughes teachers to distinguish them from
  teachers in schools not receiving Smith-Hughes
  funding. Agriculture and home economics was
  taught in many other schools but not all schools
  received Smith-Hughes monies because of limited
  funds.

33
Smith-Hughes Funds

• Providing money for teacher training

Tidbit State supervisors of each vocational
subject were given authority over the teacher
trainers. Federal level supervisors checked the
qualifications and approved of the hiring of
teacher educators. Many universities became very
dependent upon federal funds to pay vocational
teacher educators. When this funding was
abolished it created shock waves in many states
and institutions of higher education.
34
Smith-Hughes Funds

• The states did not have to use all the provisions
  of the act. For example, if there were no
  agriculture programs, it didnt have to ask for
  the agriculture money. However
• Before a state could receive monies for salaries
  for any vocational teacher, it must first accept
  the teacher training monies. This indicates the
  federal government was serious about training
  teachers.

35
Smith-Hughes Funding

• Specific amounts of money were allocated to each
  vocational discipline
• Agricultural appropriations were based on each
  states rural population
• Home economics appropriations were based on each
  states urban population
• Trade and industrial appropriations were based on
  each states urban population
• There was to be a 50-50 federal-state match on
  all salaries

36
Smith-Hughes Act - Agriculture

• ...under public supervision or control...
• ...controlling purpose...shall be to fit for
  useful employment
• ...shall be of less than college grade
• ...meet the needs of persons over fourteen years
  of age who have entered upon or who are preparing
  to enter upon the work of the farm or of the farm
  home
• Question Does the previous phrase also mean
  adult education?

37
Smith-Hughes - Agriculture

• ...that such schools shall provide for directed
  or supervised practice in agriculture, either on
  a farm provided for by the school or other farm,
  for at least six months per year
• This was interpreted to mean that each student
  (including adults) is to have a project (crops
  or livestock).
• If the teacher is to supervise it, then the
  teacher will need to be employed during the
  summer. This is the basis for 12 month employment
  of agriculture teachers.

38
Smith-Hughes Funds

• Provided money to create a Federal Board for
  Vocational Education for the administration of
  this act and for the purpose of making studies,
  investigations, and reports to aid in the
  organization and conduct of vocational education
• Question Why did Congress create a special board
  to administer vocational education?
• Answer They were afraid to turn vocational
  education over to the entrenched education
  bureaucrats who had been classically educated
  (remember what happened at UNC.)

39
Federal Board for Vocational Education

• The Board Consisted of
• Secretary of Agriculture
• Secretary of Commerce
• Secretary of Labor
• Commissioner of Education
• Three citizens appointed by the President
• agriculture
• manufacturing and commerce
• labor

40
Federal Board

• The Commissioner of Education may make such
  recommendations to the Board relative to the
  administration of this act as he may from time to
  time deem advisable.
• It shall be the duty of the chairman of the
  board to carry out the rules, regulations, and
  decisions which the board may adopt.

41
Federal Board

• The Federal Board hired a staff to handle the
  daily operations and do the real work.
• Charles Prosser was hired as the Executive
  Director
• Federal supervisors were hired in the areas of
• Agriculture (N7)
• Trades and Industries (N7)
• Home Economics (N3)
• Commercial Subjects (N3) (see next slide)
• Research (3)

42
Federal Board

• Tidbit One of the areas of investigation the
  Federal Board could pursue (as specifically
  mentioned in the act) was commercial education.
  Also, a division of commercial education was
  established with three federal supervisors, but
  no Smith-Hughes money was allocated to salaries
  of teachers of Commercial Education. A little
  strange.
• Today we would call Commercial Education
  Marketing Education and Business Education.

43
Original Federal Regions
North Atlantic
West Central
North Central
Pacific
Ag and TI had regional offices.Two Ag
supervisors worked the South one was for Black
schools.
Southern
44
Federal Regions -1920
North Atlantic
Pacific
North Central
Southern
In 1920 one region was eliminated and all the
regional people moved to Washington.
45
Federal Board

• Because of the depression, the federal government
  was restructured in the 1930s.
• In 1933 the administrative responsibilities and
  staff of the Federal Board were transferred to
  the Department of the Interior, Office of
  Education.
• The Federal Board continued to operate as an
  advisory board until 1946 when it was abolished.
  (Clarence Poe was a member)

46
Memorandum of Understanding

• In 1918 a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was
  established between federal officials responsible
  for vocational agriculture and for extension.
• This MOU was revised from time to time.
• A brief description of each program was provided,
  then specific duties of each were outlined.

47
Memorandum of Understanding

• Unless the activity is specifically related to
  classes taught, the agriculture teacher is not to
  do extension activities. However, it is
  recognized there may be isolated instances where
  the agricultural teacher is called upon by
  farmers in the school district. This should
  represent a small and incidental part of the
  job.

48
Memorandum of Understanding

• Teachers of vocational agriculture or
  representatives of vocational agricultural work
  should be invited to participate in all meetings
  conducted by the extension service for the
  formulation of county and State agricultural
  programs.

49
Memorandum of Understanding

• The extension service should not enroll
  vocational agriculture students in 4-H.
• Services should not overlap.

50
America at War
51
The War Years (WWI)
Acres in crop production
52
The War Years (WWI)
53
Food Production Act -1917

• Signed into law on August 10, 1917
• This is the sleeper extension act

54
Food Production Act Provisions

• Livestock Production (885,000)
• Disease and pest control, enlargement of
  livestock production, conservation and
  utilization of meat

55
Food Production Act Provisions

• Seed Production (2,500,000)
• Procuring, storingand furnishing seeds

56
Food Production Act Provisions

• Crop Production (441,000)
• Prevention, control and eradication of insects
  and plant diseases

57
Food Production Act Provisions

• Extension (4,348,400)
• Increase food production and eliminate waste
  through educational and demonstration methods
  through county, district and urban agents and
  others

58
Impact on Extension

• By the end of October 1,600 emergency
  demonstration agents were hired
• Act was to terminate at the end of the War

59
Increase in Extension Agents 1917 to 1918
60
Extension Staff 1918
61
Yearbook of Agriculture, 1918

• Report of the Secretary of Agriculture
• The emergency through which the Nation has
  passed only served to emphasize the supreme
  importance of the Cooperative Agricultural
  Extension Service. It has become increasingly
  clear that no more important piece of education
  extension machinery has ever been created. It
  has been amply demonstrated that the most
  effective means of getting information to the
  farmers and their families is through the direct
  touch of well-trained men and women.

62
Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1918

• What had just happened to prompt this legislation?

63
The Roaring 20s (for whom?)
Good times soon followed
64
The Roaring 20s??

• Agricultural Prices dropped 33 from 1919 to
  1920
• Agricultural Prices dropped 54 from 1920 to
  1921

65
Plumbing in the 1920s

• 1 out of 10 farm homes had water indoors
• 1 out of 2 farm homes had sinks
• 1 out of 64 farm homes had a water closet, the
  rest had outhouses
• Most laundry was done outside

66
Identifying the Problem

• Joint Commission of Agricultural Inquiry -1921
• National Agricultural Conference -1922
• Agricultural Conference of 1925
• Nothing much was accomplished by any of the
  conferences

67
The Farm Bloc

• A group of 12 senators who organized themselves
  in 1921 to promote and support agricultural
  legislation ranks eventually grew to include 22
  senators
• Non-partisan
• Similar group, though less effective, was formed
  in the House

68
Capper-Volstead Act - 1922

• Enabled the development of agricultural
  cooperatives

69
Clark-McNary Act - 1924

• Section 5 of the act provided for cooperative
  farm-forestry work

70
Purnell Act - 1925

• Authorized funds for economic research in
  agricultural experiment stations (this has
  implications down the road for extension)

71
Capper-Ketchum Act - 1928

• Providing additional funding for extension
• Specified 80 of the funds were to be used for
  salaries of extension agents
• Identified youth activities as being part of
  extension
• Equal number of men and women to be appointed as
  agents
• Money could support agriculture trains

72
Capper-Ketchum Act

• Gladys Bull, a 4-H member who was attending the
  national 4-H camp, testified before Congress in
  support of the Capper-Ketchum bill.
• Her testimony was powerful and showed the value
  of 4-H club work.

73
Subsequent Vocational Education Acts

• George-Reed Act --1929-1934
• George-Ellzey Act --1934 -1937
• George-Deen Act -- 1936 (1938)
• increased (14.5 million total)
• also funded distributive education (1.2 million)
  
• 1st to U.S. Territories
• Distributive Education funded
• George-Barden Act (1946)
• increased (28.8 mil)
• provided for veterans training

74
George-Reed Act - 1929

• Provide additional financial support for
  vocational education
• Money was equally divided between agriculture
  and home economics
• Ag money based on farm population
• Home economics money based on rural population
• Funds were used to hire subject matter
  specialists in agriculture at the federal level

75
The Great Depression - 1930s
76
The Great Depression

• Gross Farm Income in 1932 was 1/2 of that of
  1929
• Net income per farm in 1932 was estimated by
  USDA at 230
• Between 1920-1933 15,000 banks suspended
  operation
• (The NC FFA lost 350 in a bank closure in 1931)
• 4,000 banks alone closed in 1933

77
Era of Farm Legislation

• Agricultural Adjustment Act - 1933
• Farmers agreed to reduce acreage in surplus crops
  in return for benefit payments
• Farm Credit Administration - 1933
• Soil Conservation Act - 1935
• Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act -
  1936
• Rural Electrification Act - 1936

78
Electricity in the 1930s
79
George-Elzy Act (1934)

• Provided additional funding for vocational
  education
• Money was evenly divided between
• agriculture
• home economics
• trade and industrial education (amount determined
  by non-farm population)

80
Bankhead-Jones Act -1935

• Title 1 - More money for basic agricultural
  research
• Title 2 - Further Development of Cooperative
  Extension
• 8 million the first year
• 2 million each year until 12 million is
  reached

81
George-Deen Act (1936)

• More for vocational education.
• Recognized Distributive Education as a part of
  vocational education.
• Federal funds could be used to support travel of
  vocational teachers.
• President Roosevelt was reluctant to sign the
  bill because general education needed help also.

82
During the Depression

• Extension affected the most
• Agents typically held 1-3 educational meetings
  in each township to explain AAA rules and
  regulations

83
Depression years

• Extension
• Assisted in making Federal Emergency Relief
  Administration feed and seed loans
• Tried to convince farmers to reduce acreage (buy
  into the government programs)
• Convinced farmers that electricity would not
  make the cows go dry

84
Depression Years

• Lost employees (in 1938)
• SCS - 159
• Farm Security Administration - 154
• AAA - 97

85
Ag Ed Enrollments
86
Homemaking Enrollments
87
The END
88
Agricultural and Vocational Education

• From the Depression to Sputnik

89
The 1940s
90
World War II

• 4-H and FFA
• Collected scrap metal, rubber, burlap, rags and
  paper
• Sold war bonds
• Grew victory gardens (Feed a Fighter was the
  1943 4-H theme)
• Repaired and built farm machinery in the Ag
  Shop. Tractor and farm implement manufacturers
  were concentrating on war equipment.

91
Virginia FFA Activities
92

• 4-Hers sold old phonograph records in order to
  buy ambulances for the war effort.

93
4-H Victory Pins
94
WW II Posters
95
FFA Chapters sold War Bonds
96
WWII

• Many high school agricultural programs
  established food preservation centers
• They still exist in Georgia and Louisiana
• Primary emphasis was canning vegetables
• Some had slaughtering facilities also
• A number of schools in NC had these food
  preservation centers

97
WWII

• Served as Victory Farm Volunteers
• FFA considered buying a bomber but eventually
  decided not to
• National FFA Convention limited attendance to
  official delegates and award winners because of
  war time travel restrictions

98
A metal won by a 4-H member
99
Four-H

• 4-H members across the nation gathered scrap
  metal to build ships to transport war supplies
  and food to Europe. If members in a state raised
  enough funds, they could name the ship (called
  liberty ships)
• NC 4-H christens two liberty ships USS Tyrrell
  and the USS Cassius Hudson

100
(No Transcript)
101
4-H Scrap Drive
102
WWII

• After the war vocational agriculture launched
  major educational programs for servicemen under
  the provisions of the GI Bill of Rights
• Most agriculture teachers taught 3-4 night
  classes on farming to returning veterans to help
  them get back into farming and to learn shop
  skills.
• Teachers received extra pay and schools received
  substantial funds to buy equipment for classes.

103
GI Bill of Rights

• The benefits of this act were later extended to
• Korean conflict veterans
• Viet Nam Vets
• Agricultural teachers conducted night classes for
  these vets also

104
Bankhead-Flannigan Act - 1945

• Increase funding for extension
• No more than 2 could be spent in the USDA

105
George-Barden Act (1946)

• Increased funding for vocational education
• Indicated federal funds could be used to support
  travel associated with the Future Farmers of
  America and the New Farmers of America (this
  provides the legal basis for the position that
  FFA is an integral part of agricultural
  education)
• Money could be used on vocational guidance

106
Agricultural Marketing Act (1946)

• Authorized extension programs in marketing,
  transportation, and distribution of agricultural
  products (starting to move outside of the just
  farming and farm homemaker mentality for
  extension).

107
Joint Committee Report on Extension Programs,
Policies, Goals (1948)

• During the 1930s and 40s the extension service
  was called on to perform various duties for the
  national interest.
• During the depression extension was charged with
  teaching people about the various government
  programs and encouraging farmers to participate.
• In the 40s the mission changed to winning the
  war.

108
Joint Committee Report

• Now that peace was at hand and there was no
  longer a depression, what should the extension
  service do?
• Another factor was that many of the extension
  employees were new.
• There was also some questions about the
  relationship of the extension service and farm
  organizations.
• (in some states extension was working out of the
  Farm Bureau office. In some states each was
  viewed as competition )

109
Joint Committee Report

• A joint committee appointed by the Secretary of
  Agriculture and the National Association of State
  Universities and Land Grant Colleges was
  appointed to study the mission of the extension
  service.
• The 10 person panel examined the mission and
  goals of the extension service.
• No public hearings were held but the committee
  consulted with government agency heads and
  leaders of farm organization.

110
Joint Committee Report

• Their report is sometimes called the Kepner
  report because P. V. Kepner of the Federal
  Extension Service was assigned to assist the
  committee and compiled the final report.

111
Joint Committee Report

• Some of the key points/impacts of the report
  were
• Agriculture, home economics and 4-H groups are
  the primary audience for extension. However, it
  was noted that urban audiences could not be
  ignored.
• Continued emphasis on the importance of
  one-on-one contacts, meetings, and
  demonstrations.
• Changed/improved relationships with farm
  organizations
• Established stronger tie between CES to academic
  base (specialists assigned to academic department
  instead of being housed in extension
  administration)

112
Clarke-McNary Amendment (1949)

• Authorized USDA to cooperate with land-grant
  colleges in aiding farmers through advice,
  education, demonstration, etc. in establishing,
  renewing, protecting and managing wood lots and
  in harvesting, utilizing, and marketing the
  products thereof.

113
Smith-Lever Act Amendment (1953)

• Consolidated all the previous extension
  legislation
• Inserted the words and subjects relating
  thereto after agriculture and home economics
• What are the implications of this?
• Established a new funding formula based on
  rural/urban population

114
A Look Back

• In 1892 the Supreme Court established the
  doctrine that "separate but equal" was a valid
  way to handle race relationships (Plessy vs.
  Ferguson).
• The court case involving railroad cars in
  Louisiana. The races could be segregated as long
  as each race was treated equally.
• This decision impacted the operation of schools
  and the extension service until the 1960s.

115
Brown vs. Board of Education - Topeka (1954)

• This Supreme Court ruling overturned Plessy vs.
  Ferguson. "Separate but equal" was ruled
  unconstitutional.
• The case dealt with equal access to educational
  opportunities.
• Over the next few years, this would have
  implications for extension and vocational
  education.

116
Smith-Lever Amendment (1955)

• Authorized work with disadvantaged farms and farm
  families

117
Russians launch Sputnik (1957)

• In 1957 the Russians launched Sputnik. This event
  sent shock waves through out America. Perhaps
  American education was falling behind.
• We needed to put more emphasis on science,
  mathematics, foreign language and technology in
  order to catch up.

118
National Defense Education Act (1958)

• This act was passed because of Sputnik
• The Congress finds that an educational emergency
  exists and requires action by the federal
  government. Assistance will come from Washington
  to help develop as rapidly as possible those
  skills essential to the national defense.
• A major purpose of the act was strengthen the
  teaching of mathematics, sciences and modern
  foreign languages

119
National Defense Education Act (1958)

• Established a student loan program for college
• The George-Barden Act of 1946 was amended
• Area Vocational Schools were to be built to train
  technicians skilled in math and science
• Many of these schools offered agricultural
  programs
• 15 million dollars for the next five years was
  authorized for this purpose
• Health Occupations Education was recognized as a
  part of vocational education

Link to a Summary of the NDEA Act
120
A Statement of Scope and Responsibility (A Guide
to Extension Programs in the Future) (1958)

• The Russians had launched Sputnik.
• There were farm surpluses and low prices
• It had been 10 years since the last study of
  extension.
• A committee of ECOP (Extension Committee on
  Organization and Policy) was appointed to study
  the future of extension (ECOP is a committee
  within NASULGC).

121
A Statement of Scope and Responsibility

• This group appointed nine task forces in the
  following areas
• Production
• Marketing
• Resources
• Management
• Family
• Youth
• Leadership
• Community
• Public Affairs

122
A Statement of Scope and Responsibility

• The task forces were composed of various leaders
  in extension. The report, commonly called the
  Scope Report, "represents the best thinking of
  leading Extension workers on how, where, what and
  with whom the Cooperative Extension Service will
  be working for many years to come."

123
The Scope Report

• The primary outcome of the report was to broaden
  the scope of extension by emphasizing management,
  marketing and public policy. Each task force had
  specific suggestions about subject matter,
  clientele, methodology, training, and
  relationships. Several broad recommendations/obse
  rvations were found in the report.

124
Selected Scope Report Recommendations

• There will be new programs which cannot be
  handled by traditional methods of staffing and
  organization.
• There will be programs for new "publics"
• There will be programs that cross departmental or
  organizational lines
• The extension staff of the future will have more
  specialized personnel at every level.
• Regular training at the post-graduate level will
  be expected of virtually all Extension workers.

125
Selected Scope Report Recommendations

• Training must go beyond technical subject matter
  for the expanded job of adult education that
  Extension must be prepared to do.
• Training must be continuous.
• Some "re-training" will be needed to give
  certain Extension workers new skills or knowledge
  to handle specific changes in their job.

126
Selected Scope Report Recommendations

• One goal of every training program must be to
  get the individual Extension worker to re-examine
  and re-define frequently his own job the scope of
  his responsibilities, and relationship to
  others.
• Sound program planning procedures will strengthen
  every aspect of Extension work.
• Research has been, is, and will continue to be
  the basic resource on which all our programs draw.

127
Selected Scope Report Recommendations

• The teaching methods used will need to be
  tailored to specific jobs to be done.
• All teaching procedures must be continuously
  evaluated and improvements made in light of the
  evaluations.
• In its work with mass media, Extension will need
  to maintain a highly competitive level of
  professional performance.

128
Selected Scope Report Recommendations

• With the growing complexity of problems with
  which it deals, Extension must provide adequate
  materials and support for local leaders.

129
The Scope Report

• This report is often referred to by the
  old-timers in extension as a major report.
• It clearly showed that extension was in an era of
  change.
• High school agriculture would soon change also.

130
Panel of Consultants on Vocational Education
(1962)

• After John Kennedy became president, he
  requested that a special panel be convened to
  study vocational education. Vocational education
  was still operating under the provisions of the
  Smith-Hughes Act but America had changed
  considerably.

131
Panel of Consultants

• The panel was composed of people from the
  education profession, labor, industry,
  agriculture as well as the lay public and
  representatives from the Departments of
  Agriculture and Labor.
• The panel was appointed in 1961 and issued their
  report, "Education for a Changing World of Work"
  in 1962.
• The panel recommended that vocational offerings
  be expanded, updated, and be made available to
  all people. (more later when we look at the
  Vocational Education Act of 1963)

132
End of an Era

• The launching of the Sputnik by the Russians and
  the ensuing events of the 1960s heralded a new
  era in agricultural education and extension
  legislation.
• The times, they are changing.
• We are about ready to leave the sow, cow, plow
  and the stitching and stirring era.
• We will see what happened in future lessons

133
The County Agent Will Change!
134
4-H work will change!
135
So will FFA and Ag. Ed.
136
Federal Legislation Impacting Vocational
Education 1950 - on
137
Post Sputnik Legislation

• Legislation affecting Vo. Ed. After the 1950s was
  more complex and convoluted than earlier
  legislation.
• We will discuss only the parts of the acts
  impacting Vo. Ed., even though the act may have
  numerous other components.

138
National Defense Education Act (1958)

• This act was passed because of Sputnik
• The Congress finds that an educational emergency
  exists and requires actionby the federal
  government. Assistance will come from Washington
  to help develop as rapidly as possible those
  skills essential to the national defense.
• A major purpose of the act was strengthen the
  teaching of mathematics, sciences and modern
  foreign languages

139
National Defense Education Act (1958)

• Established a student loan program for college
• The George-Barden Act of 1946 was amended
• Area Vocational Schools were to be built to train
  technicians skilled in math and science
• 15 million dollars for the next five years was
  authorized for this purpose

140
Vocational Education Act of 1963

• This was a MAJOR piece of federal legislation. It
  replaced the Smith-Hughes Act.
• Categorical funding for specific vocational
  disciplines such as agricultural education was
  abolished.
• Funding went to states on the basis of their
  population in certain age categories
• States decided how to spend the money

141
Vocational Education Act of 1963

• Expanded the scope of agricultural education to
  include all areas of agriculture, not just
  farming.
• No longer required supervised practice on a
  farm. The idea was to expand the scope of SAE,
  not do away with it, but that is what some states
  did.
• Expanded the scope of home economics education to
  include all areas of home economics, not just
  homemaking.

142
Vocational Education Act of 1963

• Established work study programs for vocational
  students to provide financial support
• States had to submit plans for what they planned
  to do
• Eliminated federal supervision/control of
  vocational programs
• Funding for vocational education was
  substantially increased

143
Educational Amendments (1968)

• Amended the 1963 Vocational Education Act
• Increased funding for vocational education
• Funds could be used for high school programs,
  people who have left school, retraining, special
  needs students, construction of area vocational
  schools, vocational guidance, contracting
  vocational education with private institutions,
  ancillary services (research, teacher training)
  and administering the state plan.

144
Educational Amendments (1968)

• Did not categorically fund specific vocational
  programs, with one exception
• Specifically allocated money to Consumer and
  Homemaking Education
• Of the general appropriations to each state
• 25 had to be spent on disadvantaged populations
• 25 had to be spent on out-of-schoolindividuals
  seeking employment
• 10 had to be spent on handicappedindividuals

145
Educational Amendments (1968)

• Authorized money for
• Curriculum development (this is the only place
  agricultural education is mentioned in the act)
• Residential vocational schools (schools with
  dorms)
• Research (National Center for Vocational
  Education Research was established)
• Leadership development (selected vocational
  leaders could get advanced degrees)

146
Educational Amendments (1976)

• The Educational Amendments of 1976 have five
  Titles, Title II is concerned with vocational
  education
• Authorized more money for vocational education
• Purpose of the act was to
• extend, improve and maintain programs
• overcome come sex discrimination/bias
• develop new programs

147
Educational Amendments (1976)

• Monies could be spent on vocational education
  programs, work study, energy education, area
  school facilities, support sex equity positions,
  placement services, Industrial Arts (now
  Technology Education), support services for
  females in non-traditional programs, day
  careservices, displaced homemakers, residential
  vocational centers.

148
Educational Amendments (1976)

• There were special appropriations for the
  disadvantaged
• Consumer and Homemaking received special funding
• Every vocational program had to be evaluated
  every five years

149
Carl Perkins Act (1984)

• This was the most significant rewrite of
  vocational education legislation since 1963.
• Two broad themes
• Accessibility to all persons
• Improve the quality

150
Carl Perkins Act (1984)

• Fifty-seven (57) percent of state funds were
  allocated to special populations - vocational
  education was to be accessible to everyone
• handicapped (10)
• disadvantaged (10)
• adult retraining (12)
• single parents homemakers (8 1/2)
• sex bias stereotyping (3 1/2)
• incarcerated (1)

151
Carl Perkins Act (1984)

• Forty-three (43) percent of state funds were
  allocated for program improvement
• funds were not to be used to maintain existing
  programs
• Consumer and Homemaking received special funding
  but 1/3 had to be spent in economically depressed
  areas
• There will be a full time sex equity coordinator
  and 60,000 is allocated to that

152
Perkins II (1990)

• The Carl Perkins Act is rewritten
• Special populations is still a major focus,
• Money can be used to support existing programs
• Academic and vocational education was to be
  integrated
• Articulation between secondary and post-secondary
  institutions

153
School-to-Work Opportunities Act (1994)

• A variety of programs were established for
  students to get them more involved with the world
  of work and post-secondary education
• Grants were given to some states to develop
  programs
• This is for all students
• Funding is temporary

154
Perkins III (1998)

• This is the legislation vocational education is
  currently operating under
• The purpose of this Act is to develop more fully
  the academic, vocational, and technical skills of
  secondary students and post-secondary students
  who elect to enroll in vocational and technical
  education programs (little emphasis on special
  populations)

Perkins
155
Perkins III (1998)

• At the local levels funds can be spent on
• strengthening the academic, and vocational and
  technical skills of students
• providing students with strong experience in and
  understanding of all aspects of an industry
• developing, improving, or expanding the use of
  technology in vocational and technical education
• providing professional development programs to
  teachers, counselors, and administrators

156
Perkins III (1998)

• conducting evaluations of the vocational and
  technical education programs ...including how the
  needs of special populations are being met
• initiating, improving, expanding, and modernizing
  quality vocational and technical education
  programs
• linking secondary vocational and technical
  education and post-secondary vocational and
  technical education, including implementing
  tech-prep programs.

157
Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (WIA P.L.
105220)

• Reforms Federal employment, adult education, and
  vocational rehabilitation programs to create an
  integrated, "onestop" system of workforce
  investment and education activities for adults
  and youth. Entities that carry out post-secondary
  vocational and technical education activities
  assisted under the Perkins Vocational and
  Technical Education Act are mandatory partners in
  this onestop delivery system.
• Title I of WIA authorizes workforce investment
  programs and activities that are administered by
  the Employment and Training Administration of the
  U.S. Department of Labor. Learn more about the
  implementation of Title I of
  WIA.

158
Conclusion

• Legislation for Vocational Education during the
  past 50 years has been influenced greatly by
  changing societal and environmental concerns.
• Federal legislation has often mandated what we
  are to do.
• The focus has shifted to helping certain groups
  of people.

159
Key Legislation

• Vocational Education Act of 1963
• Educational Amendments 1968 and 1976
• Carl Perkins Act I (1984)
• Carl Perkins Act II (1990)
• School-to-Work, Opportunities Act (1994)
• Carl Perkins Act III (1998)

160
The end..
161
Legislative Mandates for Extension

• Natural-resource-based economic development

162
Legislative Mandates for Extension

• Agricultural telecommunications
• youth-at-risk
• Renewable resources
• Subsistence farming on Native American
  reservations
• Establish and operate centers of rural technology

• Outreach and assistance for socially
  disadvantaged farmers
• Rural health and safety education
• Nutrition education and consumer education
• 1890 extension work

163
Food, Agriculture, Conservation and Trade Act
(1990)

• Expanded EFNEP
• Established five regional aquaculture centers
  for research and Extension activities
• Repealed previous solar energy provisions

164
Legislative Mandates for Extension
Various minor amendments and laws have mandated
that Extension work in the following areas

• Pesticide impact assessment
• Groundwater quality
• Financially stressed and/or dislocated farmers
• Food safety

• Nutrition and family education
• Urban gardening
• Pest management
• Farm safety and rural health
• Rural development

165
Food and Agriculture Act (1977)

• A Major Farm Bill
• Authorized 260 million for Extension
• Authorized agricultural and forestry extension
  activities at 1890 institutions
• 4 of Smith-Lever Funds must go to 1890
  institutions
• Extension leaders of 1862 and 1890 institutions
  are to develop a comprehensive state-wide plan
  for extension

166
Food and Agriculture Act (1977)

• Added the use of solar energy with respect to
  agriculture and solar energy demonstration
  projects
• Established a national food and human nutrition
  research and education program
• Required the secretary of agriculture to evaluate
  the Extension Service by 1979

167
Food and Agriculture Act (1977)

• Directed the secretary to assist the Agency for
  International Development (AID) with
  agricultural research and extension in
  developing countries
• Established a National Agricultural Research and
  Extension Users Advisory Board

168
Renewable Resources Extension Act (1978)

• Provided for educational programs concentrating
  on renewable resources, which includes fish and
  wildlife management, range management, timber
  management, and watershed management, as well as
  forest and range-based outdoor recreation,
  trees and forests in urban areas, and trees and
  shrubs in shelter belts.

169
Food Security Act (1985)

• A major farm bill
• Provided grants to upgrade 1890 institutions
  extension facilities
• Made several technical amendments to fine tune
  past farm bills

170
Agriculture and Food Act (1981)

• A Major Farm Bill
• Authorized appropriations for Extension programs
  (including 1890 programs)
• Provided for the employment and training of
  professionals and paraprofessional aides to
  engage in nutrition education of low-income
  families.

171
Agriculture and Food Act (1981)

• Authorized aquaculture extension work
• Authorized rural development programs and small
  farm extension programs
• Authorized the secretary of agriculture to
  conduct an annual evaluation of agricultural
  research, extension and teaching programs.

172
Sea Grant Program (1966)

• The National Sea Grant Collegeand Program Act
• Established a program (under the Dept. of
  Commerce) to provide for applied research, formal
  education and extension for development of marine
  and Great Lake resources. About 2/3 of the states
  involved have incorporated these activities in
  the extension service.

173
FAIR Act (1996)

• Our current farm bill is titled the Federal
  Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act.
• Some people call it the Freedom to Farm Act.
• Title VIII contains provisions for Research,
  Extension, and Education
• However, because other sections of the bill were
  so controversial little attention was paid to
  this section of the bill. Most extension related
  items were merely extended. However, there were a
  few new twists.
• It contains provisions for extension, but for the
  first time has language for secondary
  agricultural education.

174
FAIR Act (1996)

• Authority for secondary and 2-year post secondary
  education in agriscience and agribusiness are
  added to the Secretary's food and agricultural
  education authorities
• This was an attempt to transfer national
  leadership for secondary agricultural education
  to USDA from USDE
• It partially succeeded, language is present in
  the bill authorizing it--but there is no money to
  do it, so nothing has happened

175
FAIR Act (1996)

• Even though the national leadership for
  agricultural education did not move (one
  representative in the house effectively blocked
  the move) a 500,000 challenge grant program to
  improve secondary agricultural education has been
  established under authority of the USDA.
• USDE provides national leadership for
  agricultural education but USDA is providing
  funds to improve the program

176
FAIR Act (1996)

• A National Research, Education, and Economics
  Advisory Board is established. (This 30-member
  advisory board replaces three separate advisory
  committees)

177
FAIR Act (1996)

• There were provisions in the act related to
• Native American extension programs
• 1890 extension programs
• Appropriations for the Extension Service
• Other provisions of the Act contain language
  reducing price supports for many agricultural
  commodities
• The Fund for Rural America was created to enhance
  community development

178
Smith-Lever Amendment (1980)

• Inserted references to rural energy in Section 2.

179
Smith-Lever Amendment (1985)

• Added language that the Extension Service give
  instruction and practical demonstrations of
  existing or improved practices or technologies.
• Authorized Extension to enter into agreements
  with private organizations and individuals. (in
  other words extension could accept money from the
  private sector)
• Improve 1890s extension facilities

180
Food, Agriculture, Conservation and Trade Act
(1990)

• A major farm bill
• Directed the Extension Service to catalogue the
  federal, state, and local laws and regulations
  that govern the handling of unused or unwanted
  agricultural chemicals and agricultural chemical
  containers.
• Educational materials regarding this were to be
  developed.

181
Food, Agriculture, Conservation and Trade Act
(1990)

• Charged the Extension Service with teaching
  composting
• Expanded natural resources educational programs
• Established a water quality coordination program
• Provided for the assistance for the control of
  weeds and pests

182
National Forest Dependent Rural Communities
Economic Diversification Act (1990)

• Directed the Extension Service to provide
  training and educational programs in rural
  communities that are economically dependent upon
  forest resources in an attempt to diversify the
  economic base of the community.

183
Rural Development Act (1972)

• Title V impacted Extension
• Authorized rural developmentand small-farm
  extension programs
• Administration of programs to be part of
  Extension
• Established State Rural Development Advisory
  Councils

184
National Agricultural Research, Extension and
Teaching Act (1994)

• Established extension education programs on
  Native American reservations
• Provided technical assistance and training in
  subsistence agriculture to Native Americans and
  Alaskan natives