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Title: Helping%20the%20Older%20Struggling%20Learner:%20Making%20RTI%20Work%20at%20the%20Middle%20and%20High%20School%20Levels%20Jim%20Wright%20www.interventioncentral.org

1
Helping the Older Struggling Learner Making RTI
Work at the Middle and High School Levels Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
2
Workshop Agenda
3
Secondary Students Unique Challenges

Struggling learners in middle and high school
may
Have significant deficits in basic academic
skills
Lack higher-level problem-solving strategies and
concepts
Present with issues of school motivation
Show social/emotional concerns that interfere
with academics
Have difficulty with attendance
Are often in a process of disengaging from
learning even as adults in school expect that
those students will move toward being
self-managing learners

4
Why Do Students Drop Out of School? Student
Survey

Classes were not perceived as interesting (47
percent)
Not motivated by teachers to work hard (69
percent)
Failing in school was a major factor in dropping
out (35 percent)
Had to get a job (32 percent)
Became a parent (26 percent)
Needed to care for a family member (22 percent)

Source Bridgeland, J. M., DiIulio, J. J.,
Morison, K. B. (2006). The silent epidemic
Perspectives of high school dropouts. Seattle,
WA Gates Foundation. Retrieved on May 4, 2008,
from http//www.gatesfoundation.org/nr/downloads/e
d/TheSilentEpidemic3-06FINAL.pdf
5
Overlap Between Policy Pathways RTI Goals
Recommendations for Schools to Reduce Dropout
Rates

A range of high school learning options matched
to the needs of individual learners different
schools for different students
Strategies to engage parents
Individualized graduation plans
Early warning systems to identify students at
risk of school failure
A range of supplemental services/intensive
assistance strategies for struggling students
Adult advocates to work individually with at-risk
students to overcome obstacles to school
completion

It is increasingly accepted that dropout is
best conceptualized as a long-term process, not
an instantaneous event however, most
interventions are administered at a middle or
high school level after problems are severe.

Source Jimerson, S., Reschly, A.L., Hess, R.
(2008). Best practices in increasing the
likelihood of school completion. In A. Thomas
J. Grimes (Eds). Best Practices in School
Psychology - 5th Ed (pp. 1085-1097). Bethesda,
MD National Association of School
Psychologists.. p.1090
7
Student Motivation The Need for Intervention

A common response to students who struggle in
sixth grade is to wait and hope they grow out of
it or adapt, to attribute early struggles to the
natural commotion of early adolescence and to
temporary difficulties in adapting to new
organizational structures of schooling, more
challenging curricula and assessment, and less
personalized attention. Our evidence clearly
indicates that, at least in high-poverty urban
schools, sixth graders who are missing 20 or
more of the days, exhibiting poor behavior, or
failing math or English do not recover. On the
contrary, they drop out. This says that early
intervention is not only productive but
absolutely essential.

Student services are arranged in a multi-tier
model
Data are collected to assess student baseline
levels and to make decisions about student
progress
Interventions are evidence-based
The procedural integrity of interventions is
measured
RTI is implemented and developed at the school-
and district-level to be scalable and sustainable
over time

Source Glover, T. A., DiPerna, J. C. (2007).
Service delivery for response to intervention
Core components and directions for future
research. School Psychology Review, 36, 526-540.
9
RTI Pyramid of Interventions
10
Tier I Instruction/Interventions

Tier I instruction/interventions
Are universalavailable to all students.
Can be delivered within classrooms or throughout
the school.
Are likely to be put into place by the teacher at
the first sign that a student is struggling.
All children have access to Tier 1
instruction/interventions. Teachers have the
capability to use those strategies without
requiring outside assistance.
Tier 1 instruction/interventions encompass
The schools core curriculum and all published or
teacher-made materials used to deliver that
curriculum.
Teacher use of whole-group teaching
management strategies.
Teacher use of individualized strategies with
specific students.
Tier I instruction/interventions attempt to
answer the question Are routine classroom
instructional strategies sufficient to help the
student to achieve academic success?

11
Complementary RTI Models Standard Treatment
Problem-Solving Protocols

The two most commonly used RTI approaches are
(1) standard treatment and (2) problem-solving
protocol. While these two approaches to RTI are
sometimes described as being very different from
each other, they actually have several common
elements, and both fit within a problem-solving
framework. In practice, many schools and
districts combine or blend aspects of the two
approaches to fit their needs.

Source Duffy, H. (August 2007). Meeting the
needs of significantly struggling learners in
high school. Washington, DC National High School
Center. Retrieved from http//www.betterhighschool
s.org/pubs/ p. 5
12
RTI Interventions Standard-Treatment vs.
Problem-Solving
There are two different vehicles that schools can
use to deliver RTI interventions Standard-Protoco
l (Standalone Intervention). Programs based on
scientifically valid instructional practices
(standard protocol) are created to address
frequent student referral concerns. These
services are provided outside of the classroom. A
middle school, for example, may set up a
structured math-tutoring program staffed by adult
volunteer tutors to provide assistance to
students with limited math skills. Students
referred for a Tier II math intervention would be
placed in this tutoring program. An advantage of
the standard-protocol approach is that it is
efficient and consistent large numbers of
students can be put into these group
interventions to receive a highly standardized
intervention. However, standard group
intervention protocols often cannot be
individualized easily to accommodate a specific
students unique needs. Problem-solving
(Classroom-Based Intervention). Individualized
research-based interventions match the profile of
a particular students strengths and limitations.
The classroom teacher often has a large role in
carrying out these interventions. A plus of the
problem-solving approach is that the intervention
can be customized to the students needs.
However, developing intervention plans for
individual students can be time-consuming.
13
Tier 2 Supplemental (Group-Based)
Interventions(Standard Treatment Protocol)

Tier 2 interventions are typically delivered in
small-group format. About 15 of students in the
typical school will require Tier 2/supplemental
intervention support.
Group size for Tier 2 interventions is limited
to 4-7 students. Students placed in Tier 2
interventions should have a shared profile of
intervention need.
The reading progress of students in Tier 2
interventions are monitored at least 1-2 times
per month.

Source Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
Implementing response-to-intervention in
elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
York.
14
Tier 3 Intensive Individualized
Interventions(Problem-Solving Protocol)

Tier 3 interventions are the most intensive
offered in a school setting.
Students qualify for Tier 3 interventions
because
they are found to have a large skill gap when
compared to their class or grade peers and/or
They did not respond to interventions provided
previously at Tiers 1 2.
Tier 3 interventions are provided daily for
sessions of 30 minutes. The student-teacher ratio
is flexible but should allow the student to
receive intensive, individualized instruction.
The reading progress of students in Tier 3
interventions is monitored at least weekly.

Source Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
Implementing response-to-intervention in
elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
York.
15
RTI Research Questions

Q How Relevant is RTI to Secondary Schools?
The purposes of RTI have been widely defined as
Early intervention in general education
Special education disability determination
How relevant is RTI at the middle or high school
level?

Source Fuchs, D., Deshler, D. D. (2007). What
we need to know about responsiveness to
intervention (and shouldnt be afraid to ask)..
Learning Disabilities Research Practice,
22(2),129136.
16
Middle High School Lack of Consensus on an RTI
Model

Because RTI has thus far been implemented
primarily in early elementary grades, it is not
clear precisely what RTI might look like at the
high school level.

There are many RTI models and the regulations
are written to accommodate the many different
models that are currently in use. The Department
does not mandate or endorse any particular model.
Rather, the regulations provide States with the
flexibility to adopt criteria that best meet
local needs. Language that is more specific or
prescriptive would not be appropriate. For
example, while we recognize that rate of learning
is often a key variable in assessing a childs
response to intervention, it would not be
appropriate for the regulations to set a standard
for responsiveness or improvement in the rate of
learning. p. 46653

Source U.S. Department of Education. (2006).
Assistance to States for the education of
children with disabilities and preschool grants
for children with disabilities final rule. 71
Fed. Reg. (August 14, 2006) 34 CFR Parts 300 and
301.
18
The Purpose of RTI in Secondary Schools What
Students Should It Serve?
19
RTI Intervention Key Concepts
20
Essential Elements of Any Academic or Behavioral
Intervention (Treatment) Strategy

Method of delivery (Who or what delivers the
treatment?)Examples include teachers,
paraprofessionals, parents, volunteers,
computers.
Treatment component (What makes the intervention
effective?)Examples include activation of prior
knowledge to help the student to make meaningful
connections between known and new material
guide practice (e.g., Paired Reading) to increase
reading fluency periodic review of material to
aid student retention.

21
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

Core Instruction. Those instructional strategies
that are used routinely with all students in a
general-education setting are considered core
instruction. High-quality instruction is
essential and forms the foundation of RTI
academic support. NOTE While it is important to
verify that good core instructional practices are
in place for a struggling student, those routine
practices do not count as individual student
interventions.

22
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

Intervention. An academic intervention is a
strategy used to teach a new skill, build fluency
in a skill, or encourage a child to apply an
existing skill to new situations or settings. An
intervention can be thought of as a set of
actions that, when taken, have demonstrated
ability to change a fixed educational trajectory
(Methe Riley-Tillman, 2008 p. 37).

23
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

Accommodation. An accommodation is intended to
help the student to fully access and participate
in the general-education curriculum without
changing the instructional content and without
reducing the students rate of learning (Skinner,
Pappas Davis, 2005). An accommodation is
intended to remove barriers to learning while
still expecting that students will master the
same instructional content as their typical
peers.
Accommodation example 1 Students are allowed to
supplement silent reading of a novel by listening
to the book on tape.
Accommodation example 2 For unmotivated
students, the instructor breaks larger
assignments into smaller chunks and providing
students with performance feedback and praise for
each completed chunk of assigned work (Skinner,
Pappas Davis, 2005).

24
Core Instruction, Interventions, Accommodations
Modifications Sorting Them Out

Modification. A modification changes the
expectations of what a student is expected to
know or dotypically by lowering the academic
standards against which the student is to be
evaluated. Examples of modifications
Giving a student five math computation problems
for practice instead of the 20 problems assigned
to the rest of the class
Letting the student consult course notes during a
test when peers are not permitted to do so
Allowing a student to select a much easier book
for a book report than would be allowed to his or
her classmates.

25
RTI Intervention Teams in Middle High Schools
Challenges and OpportunitiesJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
26
RTI Pyramid of Interventions
27
Tier 3 Intensive Individualized Interventions

Tier 3 interventions are the most intensive
offered in a school setting.
Students qualify for Tier 3 interventions
because
they are found to have a large skill gap when
compared to their class or grade peers and/or
They did not respond to interventions provided
previously at Tiers 1 2.
Tier 3 interventions are provided daily for
sessions of 30 minutes. The student-teacher ratio
is flexible but should allow the student to
receive intensive, individualized instruction.
The reading progress of students in Tier 3
interventions is monitored at least weekly.

Source Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
Implementing response-to-intervention in
elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
York.
28
Secondary Level Classroom Performance Rating
Form
29
Tier 3 Interventions Are Developed With
Assistance from the Schools RTI
(Problem-Solving) Team

Effective RTI Teams
Are multi-disciplinary and include classroom
teachers among their members
Follow a structured problem-solving model
Use data to analyze the academic problem and
match the student to effective, evidence-based
interventions
Develop a detailed research-based intervention
plan to help staff with implementation
Check up on the teachers success in carrying out
the intervention (intervention integrity)

30
The Problem-Solving Model Multi-Disciplinary
Teams

A school consultative process (the
problem-solving model) with roots in applied
behavior analysis was developed (e.g., Bergan,
1995) that includes 4 steps
Problem Identification
Problem Analysis
Plan Implementation
Problem Evaluation
Originally designed for individual consultation
with teachers, the problem-solving model was
later adapted in various forms to
multi-disciplinary team settings.

Source Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a
problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of
Educational and Psychological Consultation, 6(2),
111-123.
31
Tier 3 Targets Intervention, Curriculum, and
Environment

For a tier 3 intervention to be effective and
robust, it must focus on the specific needs of
the student. It should also address the reason
that the student is experiencing difficulty.
Rather than considering a student problem to be
the result of inalterable student
characteristics, teams are compelled to focus on
change that can be made to the intervention,
curriculum or environment that would result in
positive student outcome. The hypothesis and
intervention should focus on those variables that
are alterable within the school setting. These
alterable variables include learning goals and
objectives (what is to be learned), materials,
time, student-to-teacher ratio, activities, and
motivational strategies. p. 95

Source Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
Implementing response-to-intervention in
elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
York.
32
RTI Problem-Solving Teams at the Secondary Level
The Necessary Art of Satisficing

The word satisfice was coined by Herbert Simon
as a portmanteau of "satisfy" and "suffice".
Simon pointed out that human beings lack the
cognitive resources to maximize we usually do
not know the relevant probabilities of outcomes,
we can rarely evaluate all outcomes with
sufficient precision, and our memories are weak
and unreliable. A more realistic approach to
rationality takes into account these limitations
This is called bounded rationality.
(Satisficing, 2008)

Source Satisficing (2008). Wikipedia. Retrieved
on July 2, 2008, from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Satisficing
33
How Is a Secondary RTI Team Like a MASH Unit?

The RTI Team must deal with complex situations
with limited resources and tight timelines, often
being forced to select from among numerous
intervention targets (e.g., attendance,
motivation, basic skill deficits, higher-level
deficits in cognitive strategies) when working
with struggling students.
The problem-solving approach is flexible,
allowing the RTI Team quickly to sift through a
complex student case to identify and address the
most important blockers to academic success.
Timelines for success are often short-term (e.g.,
to get the student to pass a course or a state
test), measured in weeks or months.

34
The RTI Team Definition

Teams of educators at a school are trained to
work together as effective problem-solvers.
RTI Teams are made up of volunteers drawn from
general- and special-education teachers and
support staff.
These teams use a structured meeting process to
identify the underlying reasons that a student
might be experiencing academic or behavioral
difficulties
The team helps the referring teacher to put
together practical, classroom-friendly
interventions to address those student problems.

35
RTI Research Questions

Q Does a Problem-Solving Multi-Disciplinary
Team Process Help Children With Severe Learning
Problems?
The team-based problem-solving process (e.g.,
Bergan, 1995) that is widely used to create
individualized intervention plans for students
has been studied primarily for motivation and
conduct issues. There is less research on whether
the problem-solving process is effective in
addressing more significant learning issues.

Source Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a
problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of
Educational and Psychological Consultation, 6(2),
111-123. Fuchs, D., Deshler, D. D. (2007).
What we need to know about responsiveness to
intervention (and shouldnt be afraid to ask)..
Learning Disabilities Research Practice,
22(2),129136.
36
Teachers may be motivated to refer students to
the RTI Team because they

can engage in collegial conversations about
better ways to help struggling learners
learn instructional and behavior-management
strategies that they can use with similar
students in the future
increase their teaching time
are able to access more intervention resources
and supports in the building than if they work
alone
feel less isolated when dealing with challenging
kids
have help in documenting their intervention
efforts

37
Team Roles

Coordinator
Facilitator
Recorder
Time Keeper
Case Manager

38
RTI Team Consultative Process

Step 1 Assess Teacher Concerns 5 Mins
Step 2 Inventory Student Strengths/Talents 5
Mins
Step 3 Review Background/Baseline Data 5 Mins
Step 4 Select Target Teacher Concerns 5-10 Mins
Step 5 Set Academic and/or Behavioral Outcome
Goals and Methods for Progress-Monitoring 5 Mins
Step 6 Design an Intervention Plan 15-20 Mins
Step 7 Plan How to Share Meeting Information
with the Students Parent(s) 5 Mins
Step 8 Review Intervention Monitoring Plans 5
Mins

39
Secondary RTI Teams Recommendations

Secondary RTI Teams should be multi-disciplinary,
to include teachers, administration, and support
staff (e.g., school psychologist, guidance
counselors).
Fixed times should be set aside each week for the
RTI Team to meet on student referrals.
Sufficient time (i.e., 30 minutes) should be
reserved for initial student referrals to allow
adequate discussion and intervention planning.

40
Secondary RTI Teams Combining Consistency
Flexibility

Schools should ensure that RTI Teams follow a
structured problem-solving model.
Schools do have flexibility in when and where
they use the RTI problem-solving model. For
example
If a person (e.g., school psychologist, school
administrator) is trained to facilitate an RTI
Team meeting, that meeting can be scheduled
during shared teacher planning times or during
parent-teacher conferences.

41
Ideas to Empower Students to Take a Role in Their
Own Intervention PlansJim Wrightwww.intervention
central.org
42
Intervention Responsibilities Examples at
Teacher, School-Wide, and Student Levels
Teacher
Student
School-Wide

Lab services (math, reading, etc.)
Remedial course
Homework club

Take agenda to teacher to be reviewed and signed
Seeking help from teachers during free periods

Signed agenda
Attention prompts
Individual review with students during free
periods

43
Sample Student Intervention Contract
44
Promoting Student Involvement in Secondary School
RTI Intervention Team Meetings

Train students in self-advocacy skills to
participate at intervention team meetings (can be
informal e.g., conversation with Guidance
Counselor)
Provide the student with different options to
communicate needs, e.g.,
Learning needs questionnaire
Personal interview prior to meeting
Advocate at meeting to support student
Ensure student motivation to take part in the
intervention plan (e.g., having student sign
Intervention Contract)

45
When Interventions Require Student
Participation...

Write up a simple Intervention Contract that
spells out
What the students responsibilities are in the
intervention plan
A listing of the educators connected to parts of
the intervention plan that require student
participation--and their responsibilities
A contact person whom the student can approach
with questions about the contract
Have the student sign the Intervention Contract
Provide a copy of the Intervention Contract to
the student and parents
Train the student to ensure that he or she is
capable of carrying out all assigned steps or
elements in the intervention plan

46
Small-Group Activity Rate Your RTI
Problem-Solving Team

Discuss the problem-solving team that your middle
or high school uses to create individualized RTI
intervention plans for students.
What are strengths of your team?
What are areas of your teams functioning that
could be targeted for improvement?

Effective RTI Teams
Are multi-disciplinary and include teachers among
their members
Follow a structured problem-solving model
Use data to analyze the academic problem and
match the student to effective, evidence-based
interventions
Develop a detailed research-based intervention
plan to help staff with implementation
Check up on the teachers success in carrying out
the intervention (intervention integrity)

47
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher Seven Reasons Why
Middle High School Instructors May Be Reluctant
to Implement Classroom RTI Literacy Interventions
Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
48
Teacher Tolerance as an Indicator of RTI
Intervention Capacity

I call the range of students whom teachers
come to view as adequately responsive i.e.,
teachable as the tolerance those who are
perceived to be outside the tolerance are those
for whom teachers seek additional resources. The
term tolerance is used to indicate that
teachers form a permissible boundary on their
measurement (judgments) in the same sense as a
confidence interval. In this case, the teacher
actively measures the distribution of
responsiveness in her class by processing
information from a series of teaching trials and
perceives some range of students as within the
tolerance. (Gerber, 2002)

Source Gerber, M. M. (2003). Teachers are still
the test Limitations of response to instruction
strategies for identifying children with learning
disabilities. Paper presented at the National
Research Center on Learning Disabilities
Responsiveness-to-Intervention Symposium, Kansas
City, MO.
49
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher Seven Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Literacy Interventions

Teachers believe that their job is to provide
content-area instruction, not to teach vocabulary
and reading-comprehension strategies (Kamil et
al., 2008).
Teachers believe that they lack the skills to
implement classroom vocabulary-building and
reading-comprehension strategies. (Fisher, 2007
Kamil et al., 2008).
Teachers feel that they dont have adequate time
to implement vocabulary-building and
reading-comprehension strategies in the
classroom. (Kamil et al., 2008 Walker, 2004).

50
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher Seven Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Literacy Interventions (Cont.)

Teachers are not convinced that there will be an
adequate instructional pay-off in their
content-area if they implement literacy-building
strategies in the classroom (Kamil et al., 2008).
Teachers are reluctant to put extra effort into
implementing interventions for students who
appear unmotivated (Walker, 2004) when there are
other, more deserving students who would
benefit from teacher attention.
Teachers are afraid that, if they use a range of
classroom strategies to promote literacy (e.g.,
extended discussion, etc.), they will have
difficulty managing classroom behaviors (Kamil et
al., 2008).

51
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher Seven Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Literacy Interventions (Cont.)

Teachers believe that special education is
magic (Martens, 1993). This belief implies that
general education interventions will be
insufficient to meet the students needs and that
the student will benefit only if he or she
receives special education services.

52
Team Activity Engaging the Reluctant Teacher
53
Building Teacher Capacity to Deliver Tier 1
Interventions An 8-Step Checklist Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
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Team Activity Building Tier 1 Capacity

At your tables
Consider the eight steps to building Tier 1
teacher capacity to deliver effective classroom
interventions.
Discuss the strengths and challenges that your
school or district presents in promoting Tier 1
interventions.
Be prepared to share your discuss with the larger
group!

64
Ideas to Build Teacher Understanding and Support
for RTIJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
65
Offer RTI information to teachers in a series of
short presentations or discussion forums

A common mistake that schools make in rolling out
RTI is to present their teachers with RTI
information in a single, long presentationwith
little opportunity for questions or discussion.
Instead, schools should plan a series of RTI
information-sharing sessions with teachers
throughout the school year. Any large-group RTI
training sessions (e.g., at faculty meetings)
should be kept short, to ensure that the audience
is not overwhelmed with large volumes of
information. Consider using smaller instructional
team or department meetings as a vehicle for
follow-up presentations, discussion, and teacher
questions about RTI.

66
Offer RTI information to teachers in a series of
short presentations or discussion forums

ACTION STEP Create a year-long RTI
information-sharing plan. Determine what RTI
information your school would like to present to
staff, as well as the degree of faculty input and
discussion needed. Then draft a year-long plan to
communicate with staff about RTI. Each year,
update the plan to keep faculty updated about
implementation of the RTI model.

67
Present RTI as a coordinated, schoolwide approach
to address long-standing teacher concerns about
struggling students

Schools should consider framing RTI as a broad,
schoolwide solution to help teachers to better
instruct, motivate, and manage the behaviors of
struggling learners. Teachers want fewer class
disruptions, more uninterrupted instructional
time, higher performing students, targeted
supplemental academic help for students who need
it, and better communication among educators
about the needs of all students. As schools make
the case for RTI, they should demonstrate how it
will help teachers to manage the day-to-day
challenges that they face in their classrooms.

68
Present RTI as a coordinated, schoolwide approach
to address long-standing teacher concerns about
struggling students

ACTION STEP Get feedback from teachers about
their classroom concerns. Find opportunities to
engage teachers in productive discussions about
what they see as the greatest challenges facing
them as instructors. Note the teacher concerns
that surface most often. For each teacher
concern, generate ideas for how an RTI model in
your school might help teachers with that issue.
Craft these ideas for instructor support into
talking points and include them in your
schools RTI presentations.

69
Solicit teacher input when building your schools
RTI model

Teachers are a valuable resource that schools
should tap when implementing RTI. When schools
solicit teacher questions about RTI, include
teachers on planning teams to help to develop the
RTI process, and treat teacher objections or
concerns about RTI as helpful feedback rather
than stubborn resistance, those schools send the
message that teachers are full partners in the
RTI planning process.

70
Solicit teacher input when building your schools
RTI model

ACTION STEP Include teachers on the RTI
Leadership Team. One of the best ways to ensure
that teachers have input into the RTI development
process is to include teacher representatives on
the RTI Leadership Team, the group that oversees
the districts implementation of RTI.

71
Link all significant school and district
initiatives to RTI

RTI is a comprehensive, proactive model to
identify and assist struggling students. Yet
teachers may erroneously perceive RTI as just
another program that is likely to last for only
a short time and then disappear. Any RTI training
for staff should make the point that RTI is not a
single-self contained program but is actually an
all-inclusive and flexible framework for student
support that encompasses all existing student
support programs and strategies.

72
Link all significant school and district
initiatives to RTI

ACTION STEP Organized all school programs under
the RTI framework. Schools should present RTI as
an elastic multi-tier problem-solving framework.
First, the school lists all of its significant
current programs or initiatives intended to
assess or intervene with students with academic
or behavioral needs. The school then assigns each
of the programs or initiatives to Tier 1, 2, or 3
in the RTI framework. The message for staff is
that, while specific programs may come and go,
the overarching RTI model is both adaptable and
durable--and that much of the power of RTI rests
on its potential to integrate a series of
isolated programs into a larger unified and
coordinated continuum of student support.

73
Monitoring Student Progress at the Secondary
Level Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
74
RTI Literacy Assessment Progress-Monitoring

To measure student response to
instruction/intervention effectively, the RTI
model measures students academic performance and
progress on schedules matched to each students
risk profile and intervention Tier membership.
Benchmarking/Universal Screening. All children in
a grade level are assessed at least 3 times per
year on a common collection of academic
assessments.
Strategic Monitoring. Students placed in Tier 2
(supplemental) reading groups are assessed 1-2
times per month to gauge their progress with this
intervention.
Intensive Monitoring. Students who participate in
an intensive, individualized Tier 3 intervention
are assessed at least once per week.

Source Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
Implementing response-to-intervention in
elementary and secondary schools Procedures to
assure scientific-based practices. New York
Routledge.
75
Local Norms Screening All Students (Stewart
Silberglit, 2008)

Local norm data in basic academic skills are
collected at least 3 times per year (fall,
winter, spring).
Schools should consider using curriculum-linked
measures such as Curriculum-Based Measurement
that will show generalized student growth in
response to learning.
If possible, schools should consider avoiding
curriculum-locked measures that are tied to a
single commercial instructional program.

Source Stewart, L. H. Silberglit, B. (2008).
Best practices in developing academic local
norms. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.), Best
practices in school psychology V (pp. 225-242).
Bethesda, MD National Association of School
Psychologists.
76
Local Norms Using a Wide Variety of Data
(Stewart Silberglit, 2008)

Local norms can be compiled using
Fluency measures such as Curriculum-Based
Measurement.
Existing data, such as office disciplinary
referrals.
Computer-delivered assessments, e.g., Measures of
Academic Progress (MAP) from www.nwea.org

Source Stewart, L. H. Silberglit, B. (2008).
Best practices in developing academic local
norms. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.), Best
practices in school psychology V (pp. 225-242).
Bethesda, MD National Association of School
Psychologists.
77
Measures of Academic Progress (MAP)www.nwea.org
78
Applications of Local Norm Data (Stewart
Silberglit, 2008)

Local norm data can be used to
Evaluate and improve the current core
instructional program.
Allocate resources to classrooms, grades, and
buildings where student academic needs are
greatest.
Guide the creation of targeted Tier 2
(supplemental intervention) groups
Set academic goals for improvement for students
on Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions.
Move students across levels of intervention,
based on performance relative to that of peers
(local norms).

Source Stewart, L. H. Silberglit, B. (2008).
Best practices in developing academic local
norms. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.), Best
practices in school psychology V (pp. 225-242).
Bethesda, MD National Association of School
Psychologists.
79
Local Norms Supplement With Additional Academic
Testing as Needed (Stewart Silberglit, 2008)

At the individual student level, local norm
data are just the first step toward determining
why a student may be experiencing academic
difficulty. Because local norms are collected on
brief indicators of core academic skills, other
sources of information and additional testing
using the local norm measures or other tests are
needed to validate the problem and determine why
the student is having difficulty. Percentage
correct and rate information provide clues
regarding automaticity and accuracy of skills.
Error types, error patterns, and qualitative data
provide clues about how a student approached the
task. Patterns of strengths and weaknesses on
subtests of an assessment can provide information
about the concepts in which a student or group of
students may need greater instructional support,
provided these subtests are equated and reliable
for these purposes. p. 237

Source Stewart, L. H. Silberglit, B. (2008).
Best practices in developing academic local
norms. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.), Best
practices in school psychology V (pp. 225-242).
Bethesda, MD National Association of School
Psychologists.
80
Local Norms Set a Realistic Timeline for
Phase-In (Stewart Silberglit, 2008)

If local norms are not already being collected,
it may be helpful to develop a 3-5 year planned
rollout of local norm data collection, reporting,
and use in line with other professional
development and assessment goals for the school.
This phased-in process of developing local norms
could start with certain grade levels and expand
to others. p. 229

Source Stewart, L. H. Silberglit, B. (2008).
Best practices in developing academic local
norms. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.), Best
practices in school psychology V (pp. 225-242).
Bethesda, MD National Association of School
Psychologists.
81
Making Use of Existing (Extant) Data
82
Extant (Existing) Data (Chafouleas et al., 2007)

Definition Information that is collected by
schools as a matter of course.
Extant data comes in two forms
Performance summaries (e.g., class grades,
teacher summary comments on report cards, state
test scores).
Student work products (e.g., research papers,
math homework, PowerPoint presentation).

Source Chafouleas, S., Riley-Tillman, T.C.,
Sugai, G. (2007). School-based behavioral
assessment Informing intervention and
instruction. New York Guilford Press.
83
Summative data is static information that
provides a fixed snapshot of the students
academic performance or behaviors at a particular
point in time. School records are one source of
data that is often summative in naturefrequently
referred to as archival data. Attendance data and
office disciplinary referrals are two examples of
archival records, data that is routinely
collected on all students. In contrast to
archival data, background information is
collected specifically on the target student.
Examples of background information are teacher
interviews and student interest surveys, each of
which can shed light on a students academic or
behavioral strengths and weaknesses. Like
archival data, background information is usually
summative, providing a measurement of the student
at a single point in time.
84
Formative assessment measures are those that can
be administered or collected frequentlyfor
example, on a weekly or even daily basis. These
measures provide a flow of regularly updated
information (progress monitoring) about the
students progress in the identified area(s) of
academic or behavioral concern. Formative data
provide a moving picture of the student the
data unfold through time to tell the story of
that students response to various classroom
instructional and behavior management strategies.
Examples of measures that provide formative
data are Curriculum-Based Measurement probes in
oral reading fluency and Daily Behavior Report
Cards.
85
Advantages of Using Extant Data (Chafouleas et
al., 2007)

Information is already existing and easy to
access.
Students are less likely to show reactive
effects when data is collected, as the
information collected is part of the normal
routine of schools.
Extant data is relevant to school data
consumers (such as classroom teachers,
administrators, and members of problem-solving
teams).

Source Chafouleas, S., Riley-Tillman, T.C.,
Sugai, G. (2007). School-based behavioral
assessment Informing intervention and
instruction. New York Guilford Press.
86
Drawbacks of Using Extant Data (Chafouleas et
al., 2007)

Time is required to collate and summarize the
data (e.g., summarizing a weeks worth of
disciplinary office referrals).
The data may be limited and not reveal the full
dimension of the students presenting problem(s).
There is no guarantee that school staff are
consistent and accurate in how they collect the
data (e.g., grading policies can vary across
classrooms instructors may have differing
expectations regarding what types of assignments
are given a formal grade standards may fluctuate
across teachers for filling out disciplinary
referrals).
Little research has been done on the
psychometric adequacy of extant data sources.

Source Chafouleas, S., Riley-Tillman, T.C.,
Sugai, G. (2007). School-based behavioral
assessment Informing intervention and
instruction. New York Guilford Press.
87
Universal Screening at Secondary Schools Using
Existing Data Proactively to Flag Signs of
Disengagement

Across interventions, a key component to
promoting school completion is the systematic
monitoring of all students for signs of
disengagement, such as attendance and behavior
problems, failing courses, off track in terms of
credits earned toward graduation, problematic or
few close relationships with peers and/or
teachers, and then following up with those who
are at risk.

A sample of 13,000 students in Philadelphia were
tracked for 8 years. These early warning
indicators were found to predict student drop-out
in the sixth-grade year
Failure in English
Failure in math
Missing at least 20 of school days
Receiving an unsatisfactory behavior rating
from at least one teacher

Source Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J.
(2007). Preventing student disengagement and
keeping students on the graduation path in urban
middle grades schools Early identification and
effective interventions. Educational
Psychologist,42, 223235. .
89
What is the Predictive Power of These Early
Warning Flags?
Number of Early Warning Flags in Student Record Probability That Student Would Graduate
None 56
1 36
2 21
3 13
4 7
Source Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J.
(2007). Preventing student disengagement and
keeping students on the graduation path in urban
middle grades schools Early identification and
effective interventions. Educational
Psychologist,42, 223235. .
90
Elbow Group Activity What Extant/Archival Data
Should Your RTI Team Review Regularly?

Discuss the essential extant/archival data that
your RTI Team should review as early warning
indicators of students who are struggling.
What process should your school adopt to ensure
that these data are reviewed regularly (e.g.,
every five weeks) to guarantee timely
identification of students who need intervention
assistance?

91
Assessing Basic Academic Skills Curriculum-Based
Measurement
92
Curriculum-Based Measurement Advantages as a Set
of Tools to Monitor RTI/Academic Cases

Aligns with curriculum-goals and materials
Is reliable and valid (has technical adequacy)
Is criterion-referenced sets specific
performance levels for specific tasks
Uses standard procedures to prepare materials,
administer, and score
Samples student performance to give objective,
observable low-inference information about
student performance
Has decision rules to help educators to interpret
student data and make appropriate instructional
decisions
Is efficient to implement in schools (e.g.,
training can be done quickly the measures are
brief and feasible for classrooms, etc.)
Provides data that can be converted into visual
displays for ease of communication

Source Hosp, M.K., Hosp, J. L., Howell, K. W.
(2007). The ABCs of CBM. New York Guilford.
93
Assessing Basic Academic Skills Curriculum-Based
Measurement

Reading These 3 measures all proved adequate
predictors of student performance on reading
content tasks
Reading aloud (Oral Reading Fluency) Passages
from content-area tests 1 minute.
Maze task (every 7th item replaced with multiple
choice/answer plus 2 distracters) Passages from
content-area texts 2 minutes.
Vocabulary matching 10 vocabulary items and 12
definitions (including 2 distracters) 10
minutes.

Source Espin, C. A., Tindal, G. (1998).
Curriculum-based measurement for secondary
students. In M. R. Shinn (Ed.) Advanced
applications of curriculum-based measurement. New
York Guilford Press.
94
Oral Reading Fluency Probe Sample
http//www.rti2.org/rti2/oralReadings
95
Maze Probe Sample http//www.rti2.org/rti2/ma
zes
96
One way I have used the Maze in the past at the
secondary level, is as a targeted screener to
determine an instructional match between the
student and the text materials. By screening all
students on one to three Maze samples from the
text and/or books that were planned for the
course, we could find the students who could not
handle the materials without support (study
guides, highlighted texts, alternative reading
material). This assessment is efficient and it
seems quite reliable in identifying the potential
underachievers, achievers, and overachievers.
The real pay back is that success can be built
into the courses from the beginning, by providing
learning materials and supports at the students'
instructional levels. Lynn Pennington, Executive
Director, SSTAGE (Student Support Team
Association for Georgia Educators)

97
Curriculum-Based Evaluation Math Vocabulary

Format Option 1
20 vocabulary terms appear alphabetically in the
right column. Items are drawn randomly from a
vocabulary pool
Randomly arranged definitions appear in the left
column.
The student writes the letter of the correct term
next to each matching definition.
The student receives 1 point for each correct
response.
Each probe lasts 5 minutes.
2-3 probes are given in a session.

Source Howell, K. W. (2008). Best practices in
curriculum-based evaluation and advanced reading.
In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices
in school psychology V (pp. 397-418).
98
Curriculum-Based Evaluation Math Vocabulary

Format Option 2
20 randomly arranged vocabulary definitions
appear in the right column. Items are drawn
randomly from a vocabulary pool
The student writes the name of the correct term
next to each matching definition.
The student is given 0.5 point for each correct
term and another 0.5 point if the term is spelled
correctly.
Each probe lasts 5 minutes.
2-3 probes are given in a session.

Mathematics Single-skill basic
arithmetic combinations an adequate measure of
performance for low-achieving middle school
students.
Websites to create CBM math computation probes

Writing CBM/ Word Sequence is a valid
indicator of general writing proficiency. It
evaluates units of writing and their relation to
one another. Successive pairs of writing units
make up each word sequence. The mechanics and
conventions of each word sequence must be correct
for the student to receive credit for that
sequence. CBM/ Word Sequence is the most
comprehensive CBM writing measure.

Source Espin, C. A., Tindal, G. (1998).
Curriculum-based measurement for secondary
students. In M. R. Shinn (Ed.) Advanced
applications of curriculum-based measurement. New
York Guilford Press.
101
Breaking Down Complex Academic Goals into Simpler
Sub-Tasks Discrete Categorization
102
Identifying and Measuring Complex Academic
Problems at the Middle and High School Level

Students at the secondary level can present with
a range of concerns that interfere with academic
success.
One frequent challenge for these students is the
need to reduce complex global academic goals into
discrete sub-skills that can be individually
measured and tracked over time.

103
Discrete Categorization A Strategy for Assessing
Complex, Multi-Step Student Academic Tasks

Definition of Discrete Categorization Listing
a number of behaviors and checking off whether
they were performed. (Kazdin, 1989, p. 59).
Approach allows educators to define a larger
behavioral goal for a student and to break that
goal down into sub-tasks. (Each sub-task should
be defined in such a way that it can be scored as
successfully accomplished or not
accomplished.)
The constituent behaviors that make up the larger
behavioral goal need not be directly related to
each other. For example, completed homework may
include as sub-tasks wrote down homework
assignment correctly and created a work plan
before starting homework

Source Kazdin, A. E. (1989). Behavior
modification in applied settings (4th ed.).
Pacific Gove, CA Brooks/Cole..
104
Discrete Categorization Example Math Study Skills

General Academic Goal Improve Tinas Math Study
Skills
Tina was struggling in her mathematics course
because of poor study skills. The RTI Team and
math teacher analyzed Tinas math study skills
and decided that, to study effectively, she
needed to
Check her math notes daily for completeness.
Review her math notes daily.
Start her math homework in a structured school
setting.
Use a highlighter and margin notes to mark
questions or areas of confusion in her notes or
on the daily assignment.
Spend sufficient seat time at home each day
completing homework.
Regularly ask math questions of her teacher.

105
Discrete Categorization Example Math Study Skills

General Academic Goal Improve Tinas Math Study
Skills
The RTI Teamwith teacher and student
inputcreated the following intervention plan.
The student Tina will
Approach the teacher at the end of class for a
copy of class note.
Check her daily math notes for completeness
against a set of teacher notes in 5th period
study hall.
Review her math notes in 5th period study hall.
Start her math homework in 5th period study hall.
Use a highlighter and margin notes to mark
questions or areas of confusion in her notes or
on the daily assignment.
Enter into her homework log the amount of time
spent that evening doing homework and noted any
questions or areas of confusion.
Stop by the math teachers classroom during help
periods (T Th only) to ask highlighted
questions (or to verify that Tina understood that
weeks instructional content) and to review the
homework log.

106
Discrete Categorization Example Math Study Skills

Academic Goal Improve Tinas Math Study Skills
General measures of the success of this
intervention include (1) rate of homework
completion and (2) quiz test grades.
To measure treatment fidelity (Tinas
follow-through with sub-tasks of the checklist),
the following strategies are used
Approached the teacher for copy of class notes.
Teacher observation.
Checked her daily math notes for completeness
reviewed math notes, started math homework in 5th
period study hall. Student work products random
spot check by study hall supervisor.
Used a highlighter and margin notes to mark
questions or areas of confusion in her notes or
on the daily assignment. Review of notes by
teacher during T/Th drop-in period.
Entered into her homework log the amount of
time spent that evening doing homework and noted
any questions or areas of confusion. Log reviewed
by teacher during T/Th drop-in period.
Stopped by the math teachers classroom during
help periods (T Th only) to ask highlighted
questions (or to verify that Tina understood that
weeks instructional content). Teacher
observation student sign-in.

107
Monitoring Student Academic BehaviorsDaily
Behavior Report Cards
108
Daily Behavior Report Cards (DBRCs) Are

brief forms containing student behavior-rating
items. The teacher typically rates the student
daily (or even more frequently) on the DBRC. The
results can be graphed to document student
response to an intervention.

109
http//www.directbehaviorratings.com/
110
Daily Behavior Report Cards Can Monitor

Hyperactivity
On-Task Behavior (Attention)
Work Completion
Organization Skills
Compliance With Adult Requests
Ability to Interact Appropriately With Peers

111
Jim Blalock
May 5
Mrs. Williams
Rm 108
Daily Behavior Report Card Daily Version
112
Jim Blalock
Mrs. Williams
Rm 108
Daily Behavior Report Card Weekly Version
05 05 07
05 06 07
05 07 07
05 08 07
05 09 07
40
0
60
60
50
113
Daily Behavior Report Card Chart

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