UNIT XI

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UNIT XI ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY I

• Circulation, Respiration, Excretion, Immunity,
  Hormones
• Big Campbell Ch 42, 43, 44, 45
• Baby Campbell Ch 22, 23, 24, 25, 26
• Hillis Ch 30, 31, 37, 38, 40

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I. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - EVOLUTION

• Every cell must be able to exchange nutrients,
  wastes
• Primarily rely on
• Advantage
• Disadvantage

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I. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM EVOLUTION, cont

• Gastrovascular Cavity
• Cnidarians, flatworms
• Open Circulatory System
• Hemolymph
• Sinuses
• Closed Circulatory System

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I. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - EVOLUTION, cont

• Components of Closed Circulatory System
• Heart
• Blood Vessels
• Blood

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I. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - EVOLUTION, cont

• Fish
• 2-chambered heart
• single circuit of blood flow
• All other vertebrates have double circulation

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I. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM - EVOLUTION, cont
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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The Heart
Aorta ascending, descending Aortic valve Atrium
right, left Bicuspid (mitral) valve Chordae
tendinae Papillary muscles Myocardium Pulmonary
artery Pulmonary valve Pulmonary vein Tricuspid
valve Vena cava superior, inferior Ventricle
right, left
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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The Heart, cont

• Cardiac Cycle
• Sequence of filling and pumping
• Systole
• Diastole
• Cardiac Output
• Volume of blood per minute. Determined by
• Heart Rate Beats/min
• Stroke Volume Blood pumped/contraction
• Pulse

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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The Heartbeat

• Sinoatrial (SA) node (Pacemaker) sets rate
  and timing of cardiac contraction by generating
  electrical signals
• Atrioventricular (AV) node relay point (0.1
  second delay) spreading impulse to walls of
  ventricles
• Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)

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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The Vessels

• Arteries
• Carry blood away from heart
• Composed of thick connective tissue, thick
  smooth muscle, endothelium and basement membrane
• Veins
• Carry blood from body to heart
• Composed of thin connective tissue, thin smooth
  muscle, endothelium and basement membrane
• Capillaries
• Site of nutrient/waste exchange
• Very thin walls of endothelium basement
  membrane
• Sphincters to regulate flow

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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The Vessels, cont

• Blood Pressure
• Systolic Pressure
• Diastolic Pressure
• Normal BP Ranges
• Systolic ? 100-140 mm Hg
• Diastolic ? 60-90 mm Hg

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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Clean-Up Crew

• Lymphatic System
• Clean-up Crew for the circulatory system
• Returns fluid, proteins that have leaked out of
  capillaries to blood
• Vessels
• Lymph
• Colorless fluid, derived from interstitial fluid
• Lymph nodes
• Contain WBCs filter lymph, help attack viruses
  and bacteria
• Body defense / immunity

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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The Blood
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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Stem Cells
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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Blood Types
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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The Clotting
Process
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II. HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Cardiovascular
Disease

• Causes gt50 of all deaths in US
• Heart Attack
• Stroke
• Atherosclerosis
• Arteriosclerosis
• Hypertension
• HDLs/LDLs

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III. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• Aquatic
• Gills
• Ventilation
• Countercurrent exchange

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III. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, cont

• Terrestrial
• Tracheal systems
• Lungs

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IV. HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
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IV. HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - Breathing

• Negative pressure breathing
• Inhalation - diaphragm contraction
• Exhalation - diaphragm relaxation
• Tidal volume - amount of air inhaled and exhaled
  with each breath ( 500ml)
• Vital capacity - maximum tidal volume during
  forced breathing ( 4L)
• Breathing control centers of brain are pons,
  medulla oblongata
• Primarily a response to

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IV. HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - Circulation
Respiration
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IV. HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Oxygen Transport

• Each molecule of hemoglobin binds 4 molecules of
  O2
• Each RBC contains 250 million molecules of
  hemoglobin
• Average human has 25 trillion RBCs
• 56 Septillion (56 21 zeros!) of O2 transported
  per minute!

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IV. HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - CO2 Transport
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V. EXCRETIONOsmoregulation

• Management of the bodys water content and solute
  composition
• Animals may be classified as
• Osmoconformer - Marine invertebrates. Solute
  concentration in sea equal to that of organism
  therefore, no active adjustment of internal
  osmolarity (marine animals) isoosmotic to
  environment
• Osmoregulator - Include marine vertebrates,
  freshwater animals, land animals. Body fluids
  have solute concentration different from
  environment. Must expend energy to regulate
  water loss or gain.

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V. EXCRETION - Osmoregulation, cont

• Freshwater fishes
• Higher solute concentration in fish ? fish gains
  water, loses salt ? doesnt drink water,
  excretes large amounts of dilute urine
• Marine fishes
• Lower solute concentration in fish ? fish loses
  water, gains salt ? drinks large amount of
  saltwater, pumps excess salt out of gills,
  produces small amounts of urine

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V. EXCRETION - Adaptations

• Nitrogenous wastes from metabolism are toxic
• Deamination
• May be excreted in one of three forms
• Ammonia
• Too toxic to be stored in body but diffuses well
  in water
• Most aquatic animals
• Uric acid
• Fairly nontoxic.
• Insoluble in water eliminated as a semi-solid
  paste.
• Seen in birds, insects, reptiles.
• Urea
• Highly soluble in water so can be stored in a
  concentrated solution.
• Seen in mammals, most amphibians, sharks, bony
  fish

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V. EXCRETION Excretory Systems

• Protonephridia flatworms (flame-bulb systems)
• Metanephridia annelids (ciliated funnel system)
• Malpighian tubules insects (tubes in digestive
  tract)
• Kidney vertebrates

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VI. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
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VI. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM, cont

• Dirty blood carried away from heart via
  descending aorta ? renal artery ? kidney ?
  clean blood returns to heart via renal vein
• Wastewater from blood washing exits kidney via
  ureter ? urinary bladder ? urethra
• Kidney has two main regions
• Renal cortex (outer region)
• Renal medulla (inner region)
• Functional unit of kidney nephron
• Urine formation is a 4-part process
• Filtration
• Reabsorption
• Secretion
• Excretion

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VI. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM, contInside a Nephron

• Afferent arteriole carries blood from renal
  artery into glomerulus of nephron
• Glomerulus - ball of capillaries
• Filtration small molecules forced out of
  glomerulus into Bowmans capsule
• Filtrate moves from Bowmans capsule into renal
  tubule surrounded by peritubular capillaries
• Proximal tubule
• Reabsorption of nutrients
• Reabsorption of NaCl
• Reabsorption of HCO3 -
• Secretion of H

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VI. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM, contInside a Nephron

• Loop of Henle
• Water, NaCl reabsorption
• Post-turn Loop of Henle is
• impermeable to water
• NaCl continues to leave
• tubule
• Required to maintain solute
• concentration gradient in
• medulla
• Distal tubule
• Refining of filtrate
• Collecting duct
• Reabsorbs water, NaCl,
• some urea
• Carries filtrate to renal pelvis
• Filtrate from million nephrons
• drains from renal pelvis into
• ureter

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VI. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM, contRegulation of
Kidney Function
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VI. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM, contRegulation of
Kidney Function
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VI. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM, contRegulation of
Kidney Function
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VI. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM, contRegulation of
Kidney Function
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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEM Lines of Defense
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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEM - Innate Immunity

• Barrier Defenses
• Skin
• Secretions
• Mucus
• Ciliated Epithelial Cells
• Lyzozyme
• pH

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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEMInnate Immunity Cellular
Defenses

• Phagocytic Cells
• Neutrophils
• 60-70 of WBCs
• Engulf destroy microbes in infected tissue
• Monocytes
• 5 WBCs
• Develop into macrophages
• Large phagocytic cells that patrol interstitial
  fluid
• Eosinophils
• 1.5 WBCs
• Destroy large parasitic invaders
• Dendritic Cells
• Found in tissues that are in contact with
  environment
• Natural Killer (NK) Cells
• Lymphocytes
• Recognize lack of Class I MHC molecules found
  in all normal cells missing in virus-infected,
  cancer cells
• Trigger apoptosis by releasing perforins, other
  proteins

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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEMInnate Immunity Proteins
Inflammatory Response

• Interferon
• Proteins released by virus-infected cells
• Diffuse to healthy cells stimulates production
  of proteins that inhibit viral replication
• Complement System
• Proteins that circulate in inactive form
• Activated by presence of pathogens may lead to
  lysis of pathogen, activation of inflammatory
  response
• Inflammatory Response

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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEM - Adaptive Immunity

• Lymphocyctes
• B Cells (bone marrow)
• T Cells (thymus)
• Receptor proteins
• Plasma membrane receptors on B and T cells
• Every receptor (100,000) on a single cell is
  identical
• Binds to a specific foreign molecule
• Antigen
• Foreign molecule that elicits a response by
  lymphocytes (virus, bacteria, fungus, protozoa,
  parasitic worms, foreign cells)
• Antibodies
• Antigen-binding immunoglobulin
• Produced by B cells

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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEM - Adaptive Immunity Antibody
Structure Function

• Epitope - Region on antigen surface recognized by
  antibodies
• Antibodies are composed of 2 heavy chains and 2
  light chains joined by disulfide bridges
• C constant region V variable region,
  antigen-binding site
• 5 classes of antibodies IgG is most abundant

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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEM Adaptive ImmunityAntibody
Function
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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEMAcquired Immunity - Types of
Immune Responses

• Humoral immunity
• B cell activation
• Production of antibodies
• Defend against bacteria, toxins, and viruses free
  in the lymph and blood plasma

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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEMAcquired Immunity - Types of
Immune Responses

• Cell-mediated immunity
• T cell activation
• Cytotoxic
• Binds to and/or lyses cells
• Defend against cells infected with bacteria,
  viruses, fungi, protozoa, and parasites nonself
  interaction

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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEMCell-Mediated Immunity, cont
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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEMAcquired Immunity - Helper T
Lymphocytes

• Function in both humoral cell-mediated immunity
• Stimulated by antigen presenting cells (APCs)
• Helper T cell replicates into a clone of
  activated helper T cells memory helper T cells
• Activated helper T cell produces cytokines
• Stimulate activation of B cells and cytotoxic T
  cells
• Three main types of APCs are dendritic cells,
  macrophages, B cells

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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEMAcquired Immunity Clonal
Selection

• Binding of antigen to receptor molecule activates
  particular lymphocyte
• Response is amplified by rapid division of B, T
  cells known as clonal selection
• Effector cells are short-lived plasma cells that
  combat the antigen
• Primary Immune Response
• Memory cells are long-lived cells that bear
  receptors for the antigen
• Secondary Immune Response

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VII. IMMUNE SYSTEMImmunity in Health Disease

• Acquired Immunity
• Conferred immunity by recovering from disease
• Immunization produces an immune response
• Passive Immunity
• Transfer of immunity from one individual to
  another
• Natural Mother to fetus lactation
• Artificial Rabies antibodies
• ABO blood groups
• Rh factor

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VIII. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• Hormone chemical signal secreted into body
  fluids (blood) communicating regulatory messages
• Target cells body cells that respond to
  hormones
• Glands may be
• Endocrine
• Exocrine
• Hypothalamus
• Neurosecretory cells nerve cells that secrete
  hormones
• Feedback mechanisms
• Negative
• Positive
• Two major modes of action . . .

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VIII. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - Water-Soluble Hormones

• Include peptides, proteins, and amines
• Most common
• Signaling involves three key events
• Reception
• Signal Transduction
• Response

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VIII. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - Steroids

• Derived from cholesterol
• Include sex hormones
• Small, nonpolar hormones that diffuse through
  cell membrane
• Mechanism of action
• Binds to a receptor protein in the
  cytoplasm/nucleus
• Hormone/receptor complex attaches to DNA
• Stimulates transcription

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VIII. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
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VIII. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM GlandsPituitary Gland

• Anterior pituitary
• Growth Hormone
• Gigantism
• Dwarfism
• Acromegaly
• Prolactin
• FSH and LH
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
• Adenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

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VIII. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Glands, contPituitary
Gland

• Posterior Pituitary
• Oxytocin
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

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VIII. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Glands, cont

• Pineal Gland
• Melatonin
• Thyroid Gland
• Calcitonin
• Thyroxine
• Parathyroid Gland
• PTH

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VIII. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Glands, contPituitary
Gland

• Pancreas
• Islets of Langerhans produce
• Alpha cells glucagon raises blood glucose
  levels
• Beta cells insulin lowers blood glucose levels
• Type I Diabetes mellitus
• Insulin-dependent
• Autoimmune disorder
• Type II Diabetes mellitus (insipidus)
• Non-insulin-dependent
• Reduced responsiveness in insulin targets)

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VIII. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Glands, contAdrenal
Gland

• Adrenal Medulla (catecholamines)
• Epinephrine norepinephrine increase basal
  metabolic rate (blood glucose and pressure)
• Adrenal Cortex (corticosteroids)
• Cortisol raise blood glucose
• Aldosterone reabsorption of Na and K