Chapter 8 Conditioning and Learning

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Chapter 8 Conditioning and Learning
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AP Outline Key Terms

• Difference between learned and unlearned behavior
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant conditioning
• Skinner, Pavlov
• Acquisition
• Extinction
• Spontaneous recovery
• Generalization
• Discrimination
• Higher-order conditioning
• Effects of reinforcement and punishment
• Reinforcement and omission training
• Behavior modification
• Active and passive avoidance

• Cognitive Processes
• Social Learning
• Practice, schedules, delay of reinforcement,
  motivation
• Graphs used to show results of experiments
• Principles of learning and practical applications
• Emotional learning
• Taste aversion
• Coping versus helplessness
• Biofeedback
• Self control
• Biological Factors
• Biological constraints of learning
• Insight
• Latent learning
• Social learning

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Basics Learning and Conditioning

• Principles of learning reveal
• To understand behavior
• To manage behavior
• Pavlov, Skinner, Watson- Little Albert, Bandura

• Most learning is done by observing and imitating
  actions of others

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Definitions

• Learning is a relatively permanent change in
  behavior due to experience.
• Reinforcement- is important to learning any event
  that increases the probability that a response
  will occur again.
• Response- is any identifiable behavior
• Can be observable actions
• Can be internal heartbeat increases

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Example of Learning

• Teaching a dog a trick-
• Reinforce response by -?giving dog food

Teach a child to be neat give praise when they clean room. (Response) (Reinforcement)

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Primary Definitions

• Classical Conditioning
• A Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a
  stimulus that reliably provokes a response.
• A Neutral Stimulus only by association begins to
  elicit a response.

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Antecedents and Consequences

• Relates to what happens before and after a
  response.
• Antecedent- events that precede a response
• Consequence- effects that follow a response

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Classical Conditioning

• Before a response
• A Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a
  stimulus that reliably provokes a response.
• A Neutral Stimulus only by association begins to
  elicit a response.
• Antecedent events become associated with one
  another
• A stimulus that does not produce a response is
  linked with one that does.
• Learning occurs when new stimulus elicits a
  response

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Classical Conditioning Example

• Stimulus that reliably triggers a response-
• Puff of Air to the Eye --? causes a blink
• (Natural Stimulus) (reflex- non-learned
  response)
• Sound of horn is paired with puff of air
• Repetition of paired stimulus causes association
  of horn with puff of air. ?Soon horn will make
  people blink

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Create an Example of Classical Conditioning

• Maximum two people
• No repeat examples
• UCS
• NS
• UCR
• CR

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• UCS _pinch _____---?UCR___ anxiety___
• NS __snap fing___ _pinch ___UCS-----? UCR
  anxiety
• Expectancy-
• CS comp ? CR _ sal ___

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Key Terms reinforced

• (NS) Neutral Stimulus Bell
• (CS) Conditioned Stimulus- a stimulus that
  learning and evokes a desired response (NS
  becomes CS)
• (US) Unconditioned Stimulus- or natural
  stimulusmeat stimulus innately capable of
  eliciting a response.
• (UR) Unconditioned Response non-learned, reflex,
  innate

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Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition
• Higher Order Conditioning
• Expectancies
• Extinction
• Spontaneous Recovery
• Generalization
• Discrimination
• Stimulus Discrimination
• Conditioned Emotional Response
• Vicarious Second Hand Conditioning
• Aversive Conditioning

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Principles of Classical ConditioningHow
conditioning occurs.

• Acquisition- or training a conditioned response
  must be reinforced (strengthened)
• Classical conditioning is reinforced when the
  conditioned stimulus is paired with an
  Unconditioned Response.
• the US must follow immediately for conditioning
  to work.
• Higher-Order Conditioning- once a response is
  learned it can be used like an Unconditioned
  stimulus and be paired with another neutral
  stimulus to form a new conditioned stimulus
  (advertisers use)

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Principles of Classical ConditioningHow
conditioning occurs.

• Expectancy Expectation about how events are
  interconnected
• Extinction Weakening of a conditioned response
  through removal of reinforcement
• Spontaneous Recovery Reappearance of a learned
  response following apparent extinction

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Conditioning Principles

• Stimulus Generalization A tendency to respond to
  stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a
  conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a
  buzzer or a hammer banging when the conditioning
  stimulus was a bell)
• Stimulus Discrimination The ability to respond
  differently to various stimuli (e.g., Rudy will
  respond differently to various bells (alarms,
  school, timer))

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Classical Conditioning

• Is passive.
• It happens to the learner when a US follows a CS.
• It depends on reflex responses

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Conditioned Emotional Response

• Emotional responses may be linked to new stimuli
• Pain in dentist office -?thought causes reaction
• Response of Involuntary Autonomic Nervous system
  Fight or flight response
• Linked with new stimuli and situations? through
  Classical Conditioning

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Learned Fears are Phobias

• Phobias are based on Emotional Conditioning
• A fear that persists even when no realistic
  danger exists.
• Animals, waters, heights, thunder, fire, bugs
• Therapy for phobias includes Desensitization-
• Is used to extinguish fears- anxiety and phobias
• Includes gradual exposure to phobic stimuli-
  short term and more time.

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Classical Conditioning and Ivan Pavlov

• Russian physiologist who studied digestion
• Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were
  presented with meat powder
• Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent
  Conditioning
• Reflex Automatic, non-learned response

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In operant conditioning, a response that is
followed by a reinforcing consequence becomes
more likely to occur on future occasions. In the
example shown, a dog learns to sit up when it
hears a whistle
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Fig. 8.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning.
A tube carries saliva from the dogs mouth to a
lever that activates a recording device (far
left). During conditioning, various stimuli can
be paired with a dish of food placed in front of
the dog. The device pictured here is more
elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early
experiments.
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Operant Conditioning

• Responses followed by reinforcement cause
  frequency of response to increase.
• Learning is based on consequences of responding
• Responses are followed by reinforces
• Example
• Wear a hat--?get compliments ? Wear hat
  _(Antecedent)_(Reinforcement)____
  more get more complements (Consequence)

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Vicarious Second Hand Conditioning

• Occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to a
  stimulus by observing another persons reactions.
• We can be conditioned vicariously

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Operant Conditioning
Edward Thorndike (Law of Effect) B.F. Skinner

• Applies to all living creatures
• Can be used to alter behavior
• We associate responses with their consequences
• Acts that are reinforced tend to be repeated.
• Law of Effect The probability of a response is
  altered by the effect it has)
• Learning is strengthened each time a response is
  followed by a satisfying state of affairs.

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Operant Conditioning Characteristics

• Learner Actively Operates on the environment
• Refers mainly to learning voluntary responses
• Example T.V. Remote ?Pushing the button is
  reinforced by gaining the result

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Fig. 8.9 The Skinner box. This simple device,
invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study
of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the
bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is
automatically released. (A photograph of a
Skinner box appears in Chapter 1.)
Conditioning Chamber Animals take action to
satisfy needs. Behavior causes consequences ?
reinforces behavior
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Positive Reinforcement

• Idea that reward affects learning
• Operant Reinforcers any event that follows a
  response and increases its probability of
  occurring again.

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Operant Learning

• Based on information and expectancy
• A certain response (behavior)- will have a
  certain effect at certain times

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Operant Conditioning Characteristics

• Contingent Reinforcement
• Reinforcement works best when given
• after -? desired response has occurred.
• Timing of Reinforcement is also important-
  Operant Reinforcement is most effective when it
  rapidly follows a correct response.
• Delay in reinforcement less response

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Shaping

• The gradual molding of responses to a desired
  pattern
• (animals taught to perform)
• Beginning incremental- reinforcement till desired
  response occurs
• Step by step approximations- are refined

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Operant Extinction

• Learned responses that are not reinforced
  gradually fade away
• Takes time
• Spontaneous recovery still works

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Superstitious Behavior

• Unnecessary responses associated with successful
  Reinforcers
• Appear to produce reinforcement
• Skinner- pigeon study

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The difference between Positive Punishment and
Negative Reinforcement

• Reinforcement is to INCREASE frequency of
  behavior. 
• Punishment DECREASES behavior.  So it's just what
  you do to increase or decrease behavior. 
• Positive means ADD (like in math) and negative
  means SUBTRACT.  So Positive Punishment is ADDING
  something to DECREASE behavior.  Negative
  Reinforcement is SUBTRACTING something to
  INCREASE behavior. 
• Ex   Positive Punishment- ADDING detention to
  DECREASE tardiness if someone is late to class
  (ADD aversive stimulus)
• Negative Reinforcement- SUBTRACTING chores in
  order to INCREASE frequency of good grades when a
  son or daughter
• brings home good report card (SUBTRACT aversive
  stimulus) 
• People like to get Negative Reinforcement,
  whereas people usually do not like to get
  Positive Punishment.
•  
• You just have to look at whether you want the
  behavior to increase or decrease in frequency,
  and whether something is being added or
  subtracted in order to get to that point.

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Negative Reinforcement

• Making a response removes an unpleasant event
• Increases responding by ending discomfort
• Headache-?discomfort---take aspirin headache will
  be negatively reinforced
• Rat given electric shock-?presses bar to remove
  shock ltremoves unpleasant eventgt
• Punishment is not negative reinforcement

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Both Positive and Negative reinforcement

• Lead to increases in response (behaviors)
  frequencies
• Negative action to end discomfort
• Positive- action to get reward

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Punishment

• Decreases responding
• Refers to following a response with an aversive
  ltunpleasantgt consequence
• Punishment decreases the response or the
  likelihood that the response will occur again.
• Punishment occurs when a reinforcer or positive
  state of affairs is removed example- privileges

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Operant Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers
• Secondary Reinforcers
• Feedback

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Primary Reinforcers

• Natural, Non-learned, Rooted in Biology
• Produce comfort, End discomfort
• Fill an immediate physical need- food, water, sex
• Actions reflect primary Reinforcers

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Intra-Cranial Stimulation

• Direct activation of pleasure centers
• Example- Rat Experiments
• Primary Reinforcer

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Secondary Reinforcers

• Learned
• , praise, attention, approval
• Success, affection, grades
• Can be associated with a primary reinforcer (food
  secondary praise)
• Token reinforcer- a tangible , secondary
  reinforcer can be exchanged for primary
  reinforcer
• Dont lose reinforcing value-easily

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Social Reinforcers

• Learned desires for attention and approval
• Attention approval can change the behavior

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Feedback

• Definition Knowing level of degree of achieving
  desired results
• Learning needs responsive environment
  information
• Knowledge of results? information about the
  effect a response had
• Provides rapid learning
• Improves learning and performance
• Should be Frequent, Immediate, and detailed

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Operant Conditioning

• Continuous reinforcement- reinforcement follows
  correct responses
• Partial Reinforcement Effect- not every response
  is reinforced (gambling)
• Behavior is highly resistant to extinction
• Makes habit stronger
• Due to expectations for reinforcement
• Schedules of Reinforcement

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