Learning Styles

1
Learning Styles

• Nanda Mitra-Itle
• Indiana University of Pennsylvania

2
Discussion Points

• Think-Pair-Share
• Brief learning styles inventory
• Whats hot in education
• Agree or Disagree
• What are learning styles
• Learning styles assessments
• Levels of research
• Valid or not valid
• Debate
• What should I do now
• Questions

3
Questions

• I heard one of my classmates say the other day
  that they didn't care if there was no empirical
  evidence for learning styles... they know that
  they are a visual learner. This made me think
  about my own "learning style" (if it exists) and
  the components that go into/are required for me
  to truly learn something. Anecdotally, it seems
  that many of us as individuals and not school
  psychologists, recognize that there are methods
  of learning that are more effective for us than
  others. I just wondered if others recognize a
  preferred method of learning within themselves?
  (Amy)

4
Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share

• How do you normally study for tests, particularly
  in subjects that are difficult for you (i.e.
  physiology, music theory, etc)?
• Think back to a class (Elementary, MS HS or
  undergrad) where you learned a lot. Perhaps even
  changed your life in some way. How was it
  conducted? What about that class had such an
  impact on you?

5
Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share
E
I

• Act first, think/reflect later
• Feel deprived when cutoff from interaction with
  the outside world
• Usually open to and motivated by outside world of
  people and things
• Enjoy wide variety and change in people
  relationships

• Think/reflect first, then Act
• Regularly require an amount of "private time" to
  recharge batteries
• Motivated internally, mind is sometimes so active
  it is "closed" to outside world
• Prefer one-to-one communication and relationships

6
Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share
S
N

• Mentally live in the Now, attending to present
  opportunities
• Using common sense and creating practical
  solutions is automatic-instinctual
• Memory recall is rich in detail of facts and past
  events
• Best improvise from past experience
• Like clear and concrete information dislike
  guessing when facts are "fuzzy"

• Mentally live in the Future, attending to future
  possibilities
• Using imagination and creating/inventing new
  possibilities is automatic-instinctual
• Memory recall emphasizes patterns, contexts, and
  connections
• Best improvise from theoretical understanding
• Comfortable with ambiguous, fuzzy data and with
  guessing its meaning

http//www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.
html
7
Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share
T
F

• Instinctively search for facts and logic in a
  decision situation.
• Naturally notices tasks and work to be
  accomplished.
• Easily able to provide an objective and critical
  analysis.
• Accept conflict as a natural, normal part of
  relationships with people

• Instinctively employ personal feelings and impact
  on people in decision situations
• Naturally sensitive to people needs and
  reactions.
• Naturally seek consensus and popular opinions.
• Unsettled by conflict have almost a toxic
  reaction to disharmony.

http//www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.
html
8
Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share
P
J

• Comfortable moving into action without a plan
  plan on-the-go.
• Like to multitask, have variety, mix work and
  play.
• Naturally tolerant of time pressure work best
  close to the deadlines.
• Instinctively avoid commitments which interfere
  with flexibility, freedom and variety

• Plan many of the details in advance before moving
  into action.
• Focus on task-related action complete meaningful
  segments before moving on.
• Work best and avoid stress when keep ahead of
  deadlines.
• Naturally use targets, dates and standard
  routines to manage life.

Write your 4 Letter Personality Code
http//www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.
html
9
Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share

• Do I have patterns to the type of materials I
  enjoy?
• Do I have a preference for a particular
  study/learning style? Teaching style?
• What learning style would I be?

10
Whats my learning style?Think-pair-share

• Students are not failing because of the
  curriculum. Students can learn almost any subject
  matter when they are taught with methods and
  approaches responsive to their learning styles
  strengths (Dun cited by Ellis, 2001).
• We sometimes pretend something is true not
  because theres evidence for it but because we
  want it to be true (Sagan cited by Ellis,
  2001).

Thoughts?
11
Whats hot in education now?
12
Whats hot in education now

• Differentiation
• Learning Focused Schools
• Grouping (I.e. ability, cooperative, interest,
  etc)
• IEP/GIEPs
• Distance Learning
• Specialized curriculum
• Research based programs Tier I or II.
• Increasing student achievement

13
Whats hot in education now

• What do all these have in common?
• Individualization of content to increase student
  achievement or maximize potential.
• Are these the answers to meeting accountability
  standards for at risk students? (Anderson, 2007)

14
Learning Styles

• Agree or Disagree
• Each us receives and processes information
  differently?
• Teachers should make every attempt to know how
  students learn best?
• Intelligence and ability are equal but
  differentially distributed among individuals?
• Typical school assignments tend to discriminate
  in favor or against certain learners?
• Style based instruction increases learning?
• Any given style is not superior to another?
• Global (field dependent) intuitive learners tend
  to score lower on tests of analytical abilities
  (considered basic to ones intelligence as
  measured by IQ). Are they less intelligent than
  analytical thinkers?
• (Ellis, 2001)

15
Learning Styles

• Agree or Disagree
• It (learning style) has failed to distinguish
  among personality, ability, environment and other
  variables, leading to confusion over the very
  meaning of the construct? (Sternberg cited by
  Ellis, 2001)
• Learning style is preference rather than ability?
• This could lead teachers quickly into a
  labyrinthine world of diagnosis in the search for
  style?
• Learning Styles are more elements that affect a
  persons ability to learn than ways of learning
  themselves?
• Learning styles is an idea conjured as an excuse
  for the lack of achievement of students?
• (Ellis, 2001)

16
What are Learning Styles?
17
Learning Styles

• Premise underlying popularity?
• For all students to receive an equitable
  education does not mean that they all receive the
  same education it means that they all are taught
  in ways that promote their individual
  opportunities to learn (Alder, 2000).
• This premise leads to conclusion that teachers
  must match learning styles, change curriculum to
  make it fit, adaptive skill levels for student,
  etc(Alder, 2000).
• Each person has a combination of modality
  strengths formed by the interaction between
  individual and environmental characteristics.
  These modalities lead to styles of how we think,
  learn and communicate (Ellis,2001)

18
Learning Styles

• How defined?
• characteristic cognitive, affective and
  psychological behaviors that serve as relatively
  stable indicators of how learners perceive,
  interact with, and respond to the learning
  environment (Keefe 1979 cited by Johnson
  Johnson 2006)
• ..combination of various biological and
  experiential variables that contribute to
  learning (Rochford, 2003 cited by Johnson
  Johnson 2006)

19
Learning Styles

• How defined cont
• cognitive style that a person manifests when
  confronted with a learning task, and specifically
  as a predisposition to use a particular learning
  strategy irrespective of learning task
  differences (Schmeck, 1983 cited by Frisby,
  1993)
• stable attitudes, preferences, or habitual
  strategies determining a persons typical modes of
  perceiving, remembering, thinking and problem
  solving (Messick, 1976 cited by Frisby, 1993)

20
Learning Styles

• How defined cont
• Learning styles is that consistent pattern of
  behavior and performance by which an individual
  approaches educational experiencescomposite of
  characteristics cognitive, affective, and
  physiological behaviors that serve as relatively
  stable indicators of how a learner perceives,
  interacts with and responds to the learning
  environment. It is formed in the deep structure
  of neural organization and personality (that)
  molds and is molded by human development and the
  cultural experiences of home, school and
  society. (National Task Force on Learning
  Styles and Brain Behavior as cited by Ellis,
  2001)

21
Learning Styles

• Individuals way of processing information using
  one of several categories cognition-centered,
  personality-centered, activity-centered, and
  teaching styles.

(Sternberg as cited by Ellis, 2001)
22
Learning Styles

• Areas
• Cognition-perceiving, finding out, getting
  information.
• Personality (Conceptualization)-thinking, forming
  ideas, processing memory.
• Activity
• Teaching
• Affective-feelings emotional responses, values,
  judgments
• (Ellis, 2001)

23
Learning styles assessments?
24
Question

• It seems that Sternberg's theory of thinking
  styles is very closely aligned with Gardener's
  multiple intelligences theory. If we assessed
  students using this theory do you think we would
  find evidence for the treatment x aptitude
  interaction that we are always looking for? (Joie)

25
Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)

• Measurement Instruments Myers-Briggs
• Uses the 3 Jungian dimensions -
  Extraversion-Introversion, Sensing-Intuition
  (preferring the concrete or the abstract),
  Thinking-Feeling (preferring logic or values),
  plus one created by Isabel Briggs -
  Judging-Perceiving (being organized or flexible
  and easygoing).
• Numerous studies have provided evidence of its
  validity. The Manual for Type sites hundreds of
  studies that demonstrate its psychometric
  soundness. However, while it has been revised
  many times, the very nature of a self report
  psychological inventory includes limitations with
  reliability. However, theoretically any
  test-taker should have an organic type that is
  stable over a lifetime, and once they discover
  that type they should be able to reliably
  interpret the information related to their type.
• It is the most widely used inventory in and out
  of education and has been translated into several
  languages. More research has been conducted on
  the MBTI than all of the other inventories
  combined.

26
Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)

• Measurement Instruments Howard Gardner
• Identifies seven intelligences
  Logical/mathematical, Visual/spatial,
  Bodily/kinesthetic, Musical, Linguistic,
  Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal.
• There appears to be no apparent evidence of the
  validity or reliability of this particular
  instrument and Gardner himself does not claim MI
  to be a learning styles theory or that there is
  any reliable means to determining the type of a
  person.
• He just offers the theory that there are more
  types of intelligence than what has been
  historically considered.
• The MIDAS appears to be the only instrument
  endorsed by Gardner. It has a version for teens
  aged 15-19 and one for adults/college students
  over 20 years of age.

27
Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)

• Measurement Instruments Kolb
• Identifies 2 dimensions Reflective vs.
  Experiential and Concrete vs. Abstract. The
  result is four type combinations Converging
  (prefer to learn by solving problems and doing
  technical tasks, good a finding practical uses
  for ideas and theories), Accommodating (hands-on,
  people-oriented, relies on gut feeling more than
  logical analysis), Diverging (imaginative and
  sensitive, prefers to learn by observing,
  brainstorming and gathering information, good at
  viewing concrete situations from many points of
  view) and Assimilating (prefers to learn by
  putting information into concise logical order).
  
• Although the Kolb model has been popular and the
  subject of many studies, some scholars question
  the models validity, primarily because the scale
  asks respondents to rank rather than rate items
  (see, for example, Hayes Allinson, 1997, and
  Curry, 1987). The scale is short (12 items) and
  self-scored.

28
Kolbs learning styles
29
Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)

• Measurement Instruments Dun and Dun-Perceptual
  modality preference survey
• Characterized by a multitude of learning style
  dimensions, including Immediate Environment (with
  subscales for Noise Level, Light, Temperature,
  Design formal or informal learning environment,
  Emotionality, Motivation, Persistence,
  Responsibility, and Structure need for external
  structure), Sociological Needs (with subscales
  for Learning Alone/Peer Oriented, Authority
  Figures Present, and Learn in Several Ways), and
  Physical Needs (with subscales for Auditory,
  Visual, Tactile, Kinesthetic, Requires Intake,
  Evening-Morning/Late Morning/Afternoon, and Needs
  Mobility).
• While the model has some content validity, it is
  limited in that it does not really deal with
  psychological dimensions of learning. As a result
  it lacks an organic basis and therefore stability
  of type. This also creates a limitation in how
  it can be used to make educational choices or
  determine student needs or aptitudes.
• This model has been used in countless studies,
  and some feel that it has been well validated
  (Lewthwaite Dunham, 1999 Curry, 1987 Dunn
  Griggs, 1995), but others strongly criticize the
  model as unvalidated and lacking an underlying
  theory (Bonham, 1988 Kavale, Hirschoren,
  Forness, 1998 Kaiser, 1998). Another concern is
  that the instrument has so many scales (21) that
  it might be difficult for students and faculty to
  assimilate them all and see the forest for the
  trees, drawing an overall picture of learning
  style.

30
Learning Styles (Felder Spurlin, 2005)

• Measurement Instruments Index of Learning Styles
  (ILS)
• Sensing (concrete thinker, practical, oriented
  towards facts and procedures) or Intuitive
  (abstract thinker, innovative, oriented toward
  theories and underlying meaning)
• Visual (diagrams, flow charts, etc) or Verbal
  (written/spoken explanations)
• Active (learn by trying out, enjoy working in
  groups) or Reflective (learning by thinking
  things through, working alone or with a single
  partner).
• Sequential (linear thinking process, learn in
  small incremental steps) or Global (holistic
  thinking process, learn in large leaps)

31
Learning Styles(Felder Spurlin, 2005)

• Felder-Silverman model adds several qualifying
  statements before using their Index of Learning
  Styles (ILS) assessment instrument
• Learning styles dimensions are continua not
  categories.
• Profiles suggest behavioral tendencies not
  infallible predictors
• Preferences are not reliable indicators of
  strength/weakness
• Affected by students educational experiences
• Point is not to ID, label and modify.
• Some validity and reliability

32
Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)

• Measurement Instruments Abiator/Modalities
• The Abiator site is one of many that incorporates
  three learning style dimensions/modalities
  Visual, Auditory, and Tactile/Kinesthetic. There
  is no apparent evidence of reliability or
  validity. Because these instruments address
  sensory perceptions, however, it makes intuitive
  sense and therefore has some face validity.

33
Learning Styles (Learning Styles Resources Cite
http//www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/ls/Garde
ner.htm)

• Measurement Instruments Field
  Dependence/Independence
• Identifies two cognitive styles field dependent
  and field independent. This is one of the rare
  learning styles instruments that has been
  reasonably well validated the field
  dependence/field independence model has
  successfully predicted academic performance in a
  number of studies (Hayes Allinson, 1997
  Thompson et al, 1979 Wilson, 1998). (Field
  independent students are more likely than field
  dependent students to succeed academically.)
• Unlike many of the other inventories and
  theories, these dimensions are entirely distinct
  and separate from the Jungian dimensions. So they
  do not have any relation to introversion-extrovers
  ion, concreteness-abstractness, or
  random-sequential thinking in any way. This makes
  this theory a useful adjunct to the others. It is
  also quite predictive of what might be called
  giftedness. Those who have a field-independent
  preference due to their narrow focus and ability
  to screen can process information more
  efficiently, but may miss the social context that
  their field-dependent peers more readily
  perceive. So an over simplification would be that
  field-dependence leads to popularity and
  field-independence leads to academic success.
• Some scholars feel, however, that the GEFT
  measures ability rather than learning style,
  making it an inappropriate choice as a tool to
  help students understand themselves.

34
Elliss Levels of Research?
35
Elliss Levels of Research?

• Level I?
• Brain-mind research
• Psychological research on individual differences
• Problems?
• Close association of assessment instruments with
  intelligence measures.
• Weak link b/w theoretical work, assessment and
  practice.
• Validity and reliability of assessment measures
• (Ellis, 2001)

36
Elliss Levels of Research?

• Level II?
• Dun and Dun meta-analysis
• Oakland study with temperament based learning
  style and gifted/nongifted students.
• Other studies, etc
• Problems?
• 10 studies eluded to were, with exception of 2
  or3, in journals with little reputation for
  publishing.
• 35 unpublished studies were dissertations.
• 24 of cited dissertation studies done under Dun
  et al direction.
• (Ellis, 2001)

37
Elliss Levels of Research?

• Level II Problems cont.
• Experimental designs used in classroom based
  learning styles research weak and have inadequate
  controls.
• Researcher bias
• Hawthorn effect from doing something new
• Studies conducted by graduate students for
  dissertations.
• Replicatability problems
• (Ellis, 2001)

38
Questions

• After sitting through today's class and talking
  specifically about strong and/or possible
  evidence of effectiveness, I thought it was
  interesting that Dunn, et al, did a meta-
  analysis on the learning style model of Dunn and
  Dunn and used studies that were either published
  in journals of questionable reputation or just
  not published at all. And of the 36 studies
  included in the meta-analysis, 35 unpublished
  studies were doctoral dissertations and 24 of the
  cited dissertations were done under the direction
  of Dunn and her colleagues......WOW! Aren't Dunn
  and her colleagues worried about their own
  reputation as legitimate researchers?? Sometimes
  I wonder what people are thinking (Marybeth)

39
Elliss Levels of Research?

• Level III?
• None
• Ellis mentions the lack of level III research
  evaluating learning styles. Is anyone aware of
  any studies published since? I assume there isnt
  much more research to report, as Ellis dropped
  the topic from the new editionthoughts? (Sandra)

40
Questions

• There is little empirical support for the
  existence of learning styles, however, Ellis
  notes that the work of Sternberg and Grigorenko
  "seems to offer considerable promise." According
  to Ellis, Sternberg believes that in order to
  teach all of our students we need to take their
  learning styles into account. Doesn't good
  teaching encompass presenting information in a
  variety of ways? Isn't the Orton-Gilligham
  approach based on the idea that information
  should be presented visually, orally, and
  tactilely? Seeing, hearing, and feeling the
  various letters and letter sounds is said to
  improve learning and memory. (Erin)

41
To be or not to be valid, that is the question?
42
Valid?
Pro
Con

• Modalities change over time as demonstrated in
  duplications of classic studies (Burns, Johnson
  Gable, 1998).
• Low and High Low SES achievers differed only on
  motivation and persistence factors (Caldwell
  Ginther, 1996)

• Dunn Price study of 1980 gifted
  students-tactile and kinesthetic(Burns, Johnson
  Gable, 1998).
• Learning styles information valuable in designing
  instruction (Felder et al, 2005)

43
Valid?
Pro
Con

• All students in their study performed better on
  standardized tests when using their learning
  styles and continued trend in next 2 to 3 years
  (Burke Dunn, 2003).
• A study found differences in styles between
  Mexican Americans and European Americans (Alder,
  2000)
• A study found that students who were taught using
  a Multisensory Instructional Pkg based on their
  learning styles performed better than a control
  group (Farkas, 2003).

• A study examining learning style and preference
  for online learning support found no significant
  relationship b/w learning style and achievement
  on in-class examinations (Johnson et al, 2006).
• Learning style theories have devised more than 70
  constructs and ways of identifying and
  implementing them (Mortimore, 2005).
• Definition of intelligence is being reexamined.
  (Ellis, 2001).

44
Valid?
Pro
Con

• Many differences attributed to learning/cog
  styles also attributed to gender diff (Frisby,
  1993)
• Psychometric intelligence better predictor of
  reading/math ach (Frisby, 1993)
• Debate over whether self-report methodology
  valid? (Frisby, 1993)

• A study examining learning style and preference
  for online learning support also found active and
  visual learners appeared disadvantaged under
  online study gps (Johnson et al, 2006).
• Active visual scored lower on in class
  examinations following on-line study gp (Johnson
  et al, 2006)

45
Valid?
Pro
Con

• Construct validity and reliability of learning
  styles instruments questionable (Frisby, 1993)
• Matching approach may stunt growth (Frisby, 1993)
• Modality model has not yielded the promised
  results (Kavale Forness, 1987)

• 99 of Special education teachers thought a
  childs modality should be a major consideration
  and 93 believed their students learned more when
  modalities matched (Arter Jenkins, 1977 as
  cited by Kavale Forness, 1987)

46
Valid?
Pro
Con

• Learning styles inventories are the first
  instances of testing where a failure to solve a
  problem puts one in a different category.
• Style preference does not necessarily translate
  into higher achievement

• Research has shown that field independent or
  analytic style correlate with measures of spatial
  and verbal ability.
• Sternberg-School children who were viewed as
  stupid often suffer from merely a mismatch b/w
  their style and teacher.

(Ellis, 2001)
47
Question

• Learning styles seem to be very controversial due
  to the lack of evidence supporting it and the
  disagreement about the true definitions. Learning
  styles is definitely a difficult construct to
  measure again, due to its various definitions,
  various inventories with low validity, and
  variability within individuals (one individual
  can have more than one learning style, primary
  and secondary), but because something is
  difficult to measure, does that make it invalid
  and unworthy of exploring? (Lisa K)

48
Debate
Blah, blah
Yap, Yap
49
Questions

• If there is such a thing as learning style, which
  I believe there is, doesnt direct instruction
  disregard many students learning styles?
  (Cherisse)
• If learning styles exist, that would be a good
  point. So then why is direct instruction so
  effective? (Amy)

50
Debate topics

• Do learning styles exist?
• Are differentiation, multi-sensory and learning
  styles related?
• Is there utility to learning styles in the
  classroom?
• Is learning styles worth exploring?

51
So what do I do now?
Learning Styles
No Learning Styles
52
(No Transcript)
53
So what do I do now?

• Sternberg, it is necessary that schools take
  into account not only fit between teacher and
  student (or principal and teacher) style but also
  the way a subject is taught and the way a student
  thinks (cited by Ellis, 2001).
• Teacher should be sensitive to student
  differences, use different modalities, to reach
  different learners effectively.
• Learners should accommodate to different
  situations, some of which match our style and
  some of which do not.
• (Ellis, 2001)

54
So what do I do now?

• Is this good teaching anyway?
• Questions at a variety of levels of thinking
• Providing an overview of material before
  proceeding
• Allowing sufficient time for info processing
• Setting clear purposes
• Spaced practice
• Multisensory means to convey ideas
• Using a variety of teaching and learning
  approaches?
• Allowing students choices in methods of
  demonstrating learning
• If research does not support learning styles then
  why differentiate instruction in these ways?

(Ellis, 2001)
55
Questions

• I think that the true application of this -
  regardless of whether you buy into the idea of
  learning styles - is that teachers must
  differentiate instruction to meet the needs of
  the various students in their classroom. The
  examples of how to teach to different styles
  listed on page 153 are truly the ways to
  differentiate instruction. Is it truly necessary
  to talk about this and research it under the name
  learning styles or is it appropriate to recognize
  that all learners are unique and simply take into
  consideration the unique mix as teachers
  differentiate instruction? (Jane)

56
So what do I do now?

• No matter what, good teaching is good teaching.
  Teachers should
• Have realistic expectations
• Provide specific feedback
• Clearly communicate
• Make learning relevant to learner
• Engage in positive interactions between student
  and teacher

(Alder, 2000)
57
So what do I do now?

• Learning styles can be used to guide instructors
  on diversity of learning styles within their
  class(Felder et al, 2005)
• It can help give individual students insight into
  their possible strengths and weakness (Felder et
  al, 2005)
• (Warning) Keep in mind Learning styles have been
  shown to change over time and styles shown via
  measurements, may contradict student perceptions
  and have poor reliability and validity. So use
  with caution.

58
So what do I do now? (Caldwell et al, 1996).

• Studies show students who had more controlling
  teachers performed lower than student of less
  controlling teachers.
• Learning environments must be structured to
  achieve highest level of internal motivation from
  all students, particularly for low SES achievers.
• There is value in teaching students through
  respectful attention and language to be aware of
  their own learning strategies (Mortimore, 2005)

59
Questions

• Even if there was evidence that teaching to
  learning styles improved student achievement, to
  what extent would teachers be able to implement
  the styles in the classroom? How many styles
  would we expect one teacher to teach toward? How
  could we really teach each student to their
  preference if the research supported learning
  styles? And if we cant (if its not feasible),
  then why are we researching it with hopes of
  improved student achievement? (Christina)

60
More Questions
61
Questions

• While the research base to support learning
  styles is weak, would you recommend to a teacher
  to use the different modalities mentioned by
  Ellis such as stories, explanations, projects,
  and activities? I am not suggesting going as far
  to specifically assess or match learning styles
  since the research does not support it, but
  should teachers still try to vary their teaching
  styles with this possibility in mind? Have you
  ever worked with a student that you clearly felt
  displayed a specific learning style that was in
  opposition to the teacher's style of
  presentation? (Kourtney)

62
Questions

• We have talked in depth about how teachers need
  to be properly trained in evaluating research and
  how to apply it. However, researchers must
  publish unbiased research based findings. The
  meta analysis by Dunn supports the use of
  learning styles however does not use published
  research and then used their own research. Is
  there an agreed upon definition for learning
  styles? Would a more concrete definition lead to
  more applicable research? (Lisa W)

63
References

• Alder.N. (2000). PartIII creating multicultural
  classrooms. Multlicultural Perspectives, 2(2),
  28-31.
• Anderson, K.M. (2007). Differentiating
  instruction to include all students. Preventing
  School Failure, 51(3), 49-54.
• Burke, K., Dunn, R. (2007). Learning
  style-based teaching to raise minority student
  test scores. Clearninghouse 76(2) 103-107.
• Burns, D.E., Johnson, S.E., Gable, R.K. (1998).
  Can we generalize about the learning style
  characteristics. Roeper Review 20(4), 276-282.
• Caldwell, G.P., Ginther, D.W. (1996).
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