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Title: RTI for High Schools: The Teacher as 'First Responder' to Help Struggling Students Jim Wright www.interventioncentral.org


1
RTI for High Schools The Teacher as 'First
Responder' to Help Struggling StudentsJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
2
In a completely rational society, the best of us
would be teachers and the rest of us would have
to settle for something less. -Lee Iacocca


3
Workshop PPTs and handout available
athttp//www.interventioncentral.org/coppellisd

4
Workshop Agenda
5
Response to Intervention An Introduction for
Middle and High SchoolsTopics What RTI Looks
Like at the Secondary Level
6
Secondary Students Unique Challenges
  • Struggling learners in middle and high school
    may
  • Have significant deficits in basic academic
    skills
  • Lack higher-level problem-solving strategies and
    concepts
  • Present with issues of school motivation
  • Show social/emotional concerns that interfere
    with academics
  • Have difficulty with attendance
  • Are often in a process of disengaging from
    learning even as adults in school expect that
    those students will move toward being
    self-managing learners

7
School Dropout as a Process, Not an Event
  • It is increasingly accepted that dropout is
    best conceptualized as a long-term process, not
    an instantaneous event however, most
    interventions are administered at a middle or
    high school level after problems are severe.

Source Jimerson, S., Reschly, A.L., Hess, R.
(2008). Best practices in increasing the
likelihood of school completion. In A. Thomas
J. Grimes (Eds). Best Practices in School
Psychology - 5th Ed (pp. 1085-1097). Bethesda,
MD National Association of School
Psychologists.. p.1090
8
Student Motivation The Need for Intervention
  • A common response to students who struggle in
    sixth grade is to wait and hope they grow out of
    it or adapt, to attribute early struggles to the
    natural commotion of early adolescence and to
    temporary difficulties in adapting to new
    organizational structures of schooling, more
    challenging curricula and assessment, and less
    personalized attention. Our evidence clearly
    indicates that, at least in high-poverty urban
    schools, sixth graders who are missing 20 or
    more of the days, exhibiting poor behavior, or
    failing math or English do not recover. On the
    contrary, they drop out. This says that early
    intervention is not only productive but
    absolutely essential.

Source Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J.
(2007). Preventing student disengagement and
keeping students on the graduation path in urban
middle grades schools Early identification and
effective interventions. Educational
Psychologist,42, 223235. .
9
What Are the Early Warning Flags of Student
Drop-Out?
  • A sample of 13,000 students in Philadelphia were
    tracked for 8 years. These early warning
    indicators were found to predict student drop-out
    in the sixth-grade year
  • Failure in English
  • Failure in math
  • Missing at least 20 of school days
  • Receiving an unsatisfactory behavior rating
    from at least one teacher

Source Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J.
(2007). Preventing student disengagement and
keeping students on the graduation path in urban
middle grades schools Early identification and
effective interventions. Educational
Psychologist,42, 223235. .
10
What is the Predictive Power of These Early
Warning Flags?
Number of Early Warning Flags in Student Record Probability That Student Would Graduate
None 56
1 36
2 21
3 13
4 7
Source Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J.
(2007). Preventing student disengagement and
keeping students on the graduation path in urban
middle grades schools Early identification and
effective interventions. Educational
Psychologist,42, 223235. .
11
What previous approach to diagnosing Learning
Disabilities does RTI replace?
  • Prior to RTI, many states used a Test-Score
    Discrepancy Model to identify Learning
    Disabilities.
  • A student with significant academic delays would
    be administered an battery of tests, including
    an intelligence test and academic achievement
    test(s).
  • If the student was found to have a substantial
    gap between a higher IQ score and lower
    achievement scores, a formula was used to
    determine if that gap was statistically
    significant and severe.
  • If the student had a severe discrepancy gap
    between IQ and achievement, he or she would be
    diagnosed with a Learning Disability.

12
Target Student
Dual-Discrepancy RTI Model of Learning
Disability (Fuchs 2003)
13
Essential Elements of RTI (Fairbanks, Sugai,
Guardino, Lathrop, 2007)
  1. A continuum of evidence-based services available
    to all students" that range from universal to
    highly individualized intensive
  2. Decision points to determine if students are
    performing significantly below the level of their
    peers in academic and social behavior domains"
  3. Ongoing monitoring of student progress"
  4. Employment of more intensive or different
    interventions when students do not improve in
    response" to lesser interventions
  5. Evaluation for special education services if
    students do not respond to intervention
    instruction"

Source Fairbanks, S., Sugai, G., Guardino, S.,
Lathrop, M. (2007). Response to intervention
Examining classroom behavior support in second
grade. Exceptional Children, 73, p. 289.
14
RTI Pyramid of Interventions
15
RTI Tier 1 General-Education Classroom
InterventionFocus of Inquiry Because the
teacher is the Tier 1 (classroom) RTI first
responder who can potentially assist any
struggling student, schools should prepare
necessary resources and define clear guidelines
for how to implement Tier 1 interventions.
16
RTI Pyramid of Interventions
17
RTI Support Tier 1 Core Instruction
  • Tier 1 core instruction is considered to be
    universal because all students receive it and
    benefit from it.
  • Core instruction should include the elements of
    explicit instruction, a structured method for
    instructional delivery that is more likely to be
    effective with struggling students.
  • To judge whether core instruction is adequate,
    RTI schools use screening instruments (e.g.,
    reading fluency comprehension probes math
    computation fluency probes, math concepts and
    applications measures) to assess classwide math
    performance three times yearly. If at least 80
    percent of students attain or exceed the
    screeners performance benchmark, core
    instruction is considered to be adequate.

Sources Lembke, E. S., Hampton, D., Beyers, S.
J. (2012). Response to intervention in
mathematics Critical elements. Psychology in the
Schools, 49(3), 257-272. Wright, J. (2012). RTI
Success in Secondary Schools A toolkit for
middle and high schools. Port Chester, NY
National Professional Resources, Inc.
18
RTI Support Tier 1 (Classroom) Intervention
  • Tier 1 interventions are intended for red flag
    students who struggle in the content area(s) and
    require additional individualized teacher support
    during core instruction. To successfully
    implement Tier 1 interventions, a middle or high
    school teacher will need
  • Clear criteria to identify Tier 1 intervention
    students (e.g., students who are failing the
    course on a 5-week grade report).
  • Research-based strategies to address the
    students academic (and perhaps motivational)
    deficits.
  • A streamlined form to document the Tier 1
    intervention plan.
  • The ability to collect and interpret classroom
    data to judge whether the Tier 1 intervention is
    working.
  • Guidelines for how long to implement the Tier 1
    intervention before seeking additional RTI help
    for the student.

Sources Wright, J. (2012). RTI Success in
Secondary Schools A toolkit for middle and high
schools. Port Chester, NY National Professional
Resources, Inc.
19
RTI Tier /32 Supplemental InterventionsFocus
of Inquiry Tier 2/3 interventions occur above
and beyond core instruction, usually in
small-group format. Tier 2 interventions are
often off-the-shelf standard-protocol programs
that match common student intervention needs in
a school. Tier 3 interventionsare typically
overseen by the buildingRTI Problem-Solving Team.
20
RTI Pyramid of Interventions
21
RTI Support Tier 2/3 Supplemental Interventions
  • Tier 2/3 interventions SUPPLEMENT core
    instruction.
  • Students are identified for Tier 2/3 services
    based on objective data sources such as universal
    screeners that allow the school to predict each
    students degree of risk for academic failure.
  • In a typical school, 10-15 of students may
    require Tier 2 interventions in a given academic
    area.
  • Interventions at Tier 2 are monitored at least
    twice per month. Interventions at Tier 3 are
    monitored weekly.
  • Each Tier 2/3 intervention should last at least
    6-8 instructional weeks.

Sources Wright, J. (2012). RTI Success in
Secondary Schools A toolkit for middle and high
schools. Port Chester, NY National Professional
Resources, Inc.
22
RTI Support Tier 2/3 Supplemental Interventions
  • Each Tier 2/3 intervention plan shows evidence
    that
  • Instructional programs or practices are
    evidence-based.
  • The intervention has been selected because it
    logically addresses the area(s) of academic
    deficit for the target student.
  • The student-teacher ratio in the group provides
    adequate student support Tier 2 up to 7
    students Tier 3 up to 3 students. NOTE The
    instructional ratio for students engaged in
    computer-delivered Tier 2/3 instruction is 11.
  • Students enrolled in the Tier 2/3 intervention
    group have the same shared intervention need(s).
  • The intervention provides contact time adequate
    to the student academic deficit. Tier 2
    interventions occur a minimum of 3-5 times per
    week in sessions of 30 mins or more Tier 3
    interventions occur daily in sessions of 30 mins
    or more (Burns Gibbons, 2008).

Sources Wright, J. (2012). RTI Success in
Secondary Schools A toolkit for middle and high
schools. Port Chester, NY National Professional
Resources, Inc.
23
Common Core State Standards Supporting
Different Learners in Reading
  • The Standards set grade-specific standards but
    do not define the intervention methods or
    materials necessary to support students who are
    well below or well above grade-level
    expectations. No set of grade-specific standards
    can fully reflect the great variety in abilities,
    needs, learning rates, and achievement levels of
    students in any given classroom. However, the
    Standards do provide clear signposts along the
    way to the goal of college and career readiness
    for all students.

Source National Governors Association Center for
Best Practices and Council of Chief State School
Officers. (2010). Common Core State Standards for
English Language Arts Literacy in
History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical
Subjects.. Retrieved on September 23, 2012, from
http//www.corestandards.org/ p. 6.
24
Common Core State Standards Supporting
Different Learners in Reading
  • It is also beyond the scope of the Standards to
    define the full range of supports appropriate for
    English language learners and for students with
    special needs. At the same time, all students
    must have the opportunity to learn and meet the
    same high standards if they are to access the
    knowledge and skills necessary in their posthigh
    school lives.

Source National Governors Association Center for
Best Practices and Council of Chief State School
Officers. (2010). Common Core State Standards for
English Language Arts Literacy in
History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical
Subjects.. Retrieved on September 23, 2012, from
http//www.corestandards.org/ p. 6.
25
Defining Tier 1 Classroom InterventionTopics
Teacher as Interventionist 6 Steps Definition
of Core Instruction/Academic Intervention/Accommod
ation/Modification Direct Instruction
Checklist
26
The Key Role of Classroom Teachers as Tier
1Interventionists in RTI 6 Steps
  1. The teacher defines the student academic or
    behavioral problem clearly.
  2. The teacher decides on the best explanation for
    why the problem is occurring.
  3. The teacher selects research-based
    interventions.
  4. The teacher documents the students Tier 1
    intervention plan.
  5. The teacher monitors the students response
    (progress) to the intervention plan.
  6. The teacher knows what the next steps are when a
    student fails to make adequate progress with Tier
    1 interventions alone.

27
pp. 7-9
28
Defining Core Instruction, Intervention,
Accommodation and Modification p. 22
29
Core Instruction, Interventions, Instructional
Adjustments Modifications Sorting Them Out
  • Core Instruction. Those instructional strategies
    that are used routinely with all students in a
    general-education setting are considered core
    instruction. High-quality instruction is
    essential and forms the foundation of RTI
    academic support. NOTE While it is important to
    verify that good core instructional practices are
    in place for a struggling student, those routine
    practices do not count as individual student
    interventions.

30
Core Instruction, Interventions, Instructional
Adjustments Modifications Sorting Them Out
  • Intervention. An academic intervention is a
    strategy used to teach a new skill, build fluency
    in a skill, or encourage a child to apply an
    existing skill to new situations or settings. An
    intervention can be thought of as a set of
    actions that, when taken, have demonstrated
    ability to change a fixed educational trajectory
    (Methe Riley-Tillman, 2008 p. 37).

31
Core Instruction, Interventions, Instructional
Adjustments Modifications Sorting Them Out
  • Instructional Adjustment. An instructional
    adjustment (accommodation) is intended to help
    the student to fully access and participate in
    the general-education curriculum without changing
    the instructional content and without reducing
    the students rate of learning (Skinner, Pappas
    Davis, 2005). An instructional adjustment is
    intended to remove barriers to learning while
    still expecting that students will master the
    same instructional content as their typical
    peers.
  • instructional adjustment example 1 Students are
    allowed to supplement silent reading of a novel
    by listening to the book on tape.
  • instructional adjustment example 2 For
    unmotivated students, the instructor breaks
    larger assignments into smaller chunks and
    providing students with performance feedback and
    praise for each completed chunk of assigned
    work (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005).

32
Teaching is giving it isnt taking away.
(Howell, Hosp Kurns, 2008 p. 356).


Source Howell, K. W., Hosp, J. L., Kurns, S.
(2008). Best practices in curriculum-based
evaluation. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.), Best
practices in school psychology V (pp.349-362).
Bethesda, MD National Association of School
Psychologists..
33
Core Instruction, Interventions, Instructional
Adjustments Modifications Sorting Them Out
  • Modification. A modification changes the
    expectations of what a student is expected to
    know or do in core instructiontypically by
    lowering the academic standards against which the
    student is to be evaluated. Examples of
    modifications
  • Giving a student five math computation problems
    for practice instead of the 20 problems assigned
    to the rest of the class
  • Letting the student consult course notes during a
    test when peers are not permitted to do so

34
RTI Are Modifications Occurring in Core
Instruction for General-Ed Students?
  • In your elbow groups, discuss the difference
    between instructional adjustment
    (accommodation) and modification (p. 22).
  • Are there times in your classroom or school when
    it is difficult to avoid modifying math core
    instruction for a general-education student?
    Discuss these challenging situations.

35
Motivation Deficit 1 The student is unmotivated
because he or she cannot do the assigned work.
  • Profile of a Student with This Motivation
    Problem The student lacks essential skills
    required to do the task.

Handout pp.10-12
36
Motivation Deficit 1 Cannot Do the Work
  • Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem
    (Cont.)Areas of deficit might include
  • Basic academic skills. Basic skills have
    straightforward criteria for correct performance
    (e.g., the student defines vocabulary words or
    decodes text or computes math facts) and
    comprise the building-blocks of more complex
    academic tasks (Rupley, Blair, Nichols, 2009).
  • Cognitive strategies. Students employ specific
    cognitive strategies as guiding procedures to
    complete more complex academic tasks such as
    reading comprehension or writing (Rosenshine,
    1995).
  • Academic-enabling skills. Skills that are
    academic enablers (DiPerna, 2006) are not tied
    to specific academic knowledge but rather aid
    student learning across a wide range of settings
    and tasks (e.g., organizing work materials, time
    management).

37
Motivation Deficit 1 Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
  • What the Research Says When a student lacks the
    capability to complete an academic task because
    of limited or missing basic skills, cognitive
    strategies, or academic-enabling skills, that
    student is still in the acquisition stage of
    learning (Haring et al., 1978). That student
    cannot be expected to be motivated or to be
    successful as a learner unless he or she is first
    explicitly taught these weak or absent essential
    skills (Daly, Witt, Martens Dool, 1997).

38
Motivation Deficit 1 Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
  • How to Verify the Presence of This Motivation
    Problem The teacher collects information (e.g.,
    through observations of the student engaging in
    academic tasks interviews with the student
    examination of work products, quizzes, or tests)
    demonstrating that the student lacks basic
    skills, cognitive strategies, or
    academic-enabling skills essential to the
    academic task.

39
Motivation Deficit 1 Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
  • How to Fix This Motivation Problem Students who
    are not motivated because they lack essential
    skills need to be taught those skills.
    Direct-Instruction Format. Students learning
    new material, concepts, or skills benefit from a
    direct instruction approach. (Burns,
    VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008 Rosenshine, 1995
    Rupley, Blair, Nichols, 2009).

40
(No Transcript)
41
Motivation Deficit 1 Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
  • How to Fix This Motivation Problem When
    following a direct-instruction format, the
    teacher
  • ensures that the lesson content is appropriately
    matched to students abilities.
  • opens the lesson with a brief review of concepts
    or material that were previously presented.
  • states the goals of the current days lesson.
  • breaks new material into small, manageable
    increments, or steps.

42
Motivation Deficit 1 Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
  • How to Fix This Motivation Problem When
    following a direct-instruction format, the
    teacher
  • throughout the lesson, provides adequate
    explanations and detailed instructions for all
    concepts and materials being taught. NOTE Verbal
    explanations can include talk-alouds (e.g., the
    teacher describes and explains each step of a
    cognitive strategy) and think-alouds (e.g., the
    teacher applies a cognitive strategy to a
    particular problem or task and verbalizes the
    steps in applying the strategy).
  • regularly checks for student understanding by
    posing frequent questions and eliciting group
    responses.

43
Motivation Deficit 1 Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
  • How to Fix This Motivation Problem When
    following a direct-instruction format, the
    teacher
  • verifies that students are experiencing
    sufficient success in the lesson content to shape
    their learning in the desired direction and to
    maintain student motivation and engagement.
  • provides timely and regular performance feedback
    and corrections throughout the lesson as needed
    to guide student learning.

44
Motivation Deficit 1 Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)
  • How to Fix This Motivation Problem When
    following a direct-instruction format, the
    teacher
  • allows students the chance to engage in practice
    activities distributed throughout the lesson
    (e.g., through teacher demonstration then group
    practice with teacher supervision and feedback
    then independent, individual student practice).
  • ensures that students have adequate support
    (e.g., clear and explicit instructions teacher
    monitoring) to be successful during independent
    seatwork practice activities.

45
(No Transcript)
46
Activity Core Instruction Fidelity Checks
  • Lembke et al (2012) recommend that schools
    periodically use teacher self-, collegial, or
    administrative checks to ensure that strong
    explicit core instruction is occurring in
    mathematics classes.
  • Review the Direct Instruction Format checklist
    that appears on page 11 of your handout.
  • Discuss how your school could use this or a
    similar checklist to conduct occasional core
    instruction fidelity checks to verify strong
    Tier 1 math instruction.

Source Lembke, E. S., Hampton, D., Beyers, S.
J. (2012). Response to intervention in
mathematics Critical elements. Psychology in the
Schools, 49(3), 257-272.
47
Academic Interventions and Classroom
Accommodations Starter Set Topics Sample
Intervention Ideas for Reading, Writing, and
Academic Support Skills Accommodation Ideas
Suitable for General-Education Classrooms
48
Academic Interventions ExamplesReading
ComprehensionCore Writing StrategiesSentence
Combining
49
Promoting Student Reading Comprehension Fix-Up
Skills pp. 13-15
50
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
  • Good readers continuously monitor their
    understanding of informational text. When
    necessary, they also take steps to improve their
    understanding of text through use of reading
    comprehension fix-up skills.
  • Presented here are a series of fix-up skill
    strategies that can help struggling students to
    better understand difficult reading assignments

51
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Promoting Understanding
    Building Endurance through Reading-Reflection
    Pauses (Hedin Conderman, 2010). The student
    decides on a reading interval (e.g., every four
    sentences every 3 minutes at the end of each
    paragraph). At the end of each interval, the
    student pauses briefly to recall the main points
    of the reading. If the student has questions or
    is uncertain about the content, the student
    rereads part or all of the section just read.
    This strategy is useful both for students who
    need to monitor their understanding as well as
    those who benefit from brief breaks when engaging
    in intensive reading as a means to build up
    endurance as attentive readers.

52
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Identifying or Constructing
    Main Idea Sentences (Davey McBride, 1986
    Rosenshine, Meister Chapman, 1996). For each
    paragraph in an assigned reading, the student
    either (a) highlights the main idea sentence or
    (b) highlights key details and uses them to write
    a gist sentence. The student then writes the
    main idea of that paragraph on an index card. On
    the other side of the card, the student writes a
    question whose answer is that paragraphs main
    idea sentence. This stack of main idea cards
    becomes a useful tool to review assigned
    readings.

53
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Linking Pronouns to Referents
    (Hedin Conderman, 2010). Some readers lose the
    connection between pronouns and the nouns that
    they refer to (known as referents)especially
    when reading challenging text. The student is
    encouraged to circle pronouns in the reading, to
    explicitly identify each pronouns referent, and
    (optionally) to write next to the pronoun the
    name of its referent. For example, the student
    may add the referent to a pronoun in this
    sentence from a biology text The Cambrian
    Period is the first geological age that has large
    numbers of multi-celled organisms associated with
    it Cambrian Period.

54
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Apply Vocabulary Fix-Up
    Skills for Unknown Words (Klingner Vaughn,
    1999). When confronting an unknown word in a
    reading selection, the student applies the
    following vocabulary fix-up skills
  • Read the sentence again.
  • Read the sentences before and after the problem
    sentence for clues to the words meaning.
  • See if there are prefixes or suffixes in the word
    that can give clues to meaning.
  • Break the word up by syllables and look for
    smaller words within.

55
Reading Comprehension Fix-Up Skills A Toolkit
(Cont.)
  • Student Strategy Reading Actively Through Text
    Annotation (Harris, 1990 Sarkisian et al.,
    2003). Students are likely to increase their
    retention of information when they interact
    actively with their reading by jotting comments
    in the margin of the text. Using photocopies, the
    student is taught to engage in an ongoing
    'conversation' with the writer by recording a
    running series of brief comments in the margins
    of the text. The student may write annotations to
    record opinions about points raised by the
    writer, questions triggered by the reading, or
    unknown vocabulary words.

56
A Sampling of Accommodation Ideas
57
Accommodations Sampling
  • Here is a sampling of accommodations for
    Instruction taken from this application
  • -- Pages 26-30 (items 17-37) from the
    accommodations section of the workshop handout.

58
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • ADJUST INSTRUCTIONAL MATCH. Verify that the
    student possesses the required skills to
    understand course instruction and complete
    academic tasks assigned as in-class work or
    homework. If necessary, provide additional
    instruction (e.g., via tutoring sessions with a
    peer or instructor) or other supports to enable
    the student to meet academic expectations.

1
Source Kern, L, Clemens, N. (2007). Antecedent
strategies to promote appropriate classroom
behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 44(1), 65-75.
59
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • CHUNK CLASSWORK AND INCLUDE BREAKS. Break up
    lectures or student work sessions into smaller
    chunks and include brief breaks to sustain
    student attention.

2
Source Barkley, R. A. (2008). 80 classroom
accommodations for children or teens with ADHD.
The ADHD Report, 16(4), 7-10.
60
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • CLASS NOTES CREATE GUIDED NOTES. Prepare a copy
    of notes summarizing content from a class lecture
    or assigned readingwith blanks inserted in the
    notes where key facts or concepts should appear.
    As information is covered during lecture or in a
    reading assignment, the student writes missing
    content into blanks to complete the guided notes.

3
Source Konrad, M., Joseph, L. M., Eveleigh,
E. (2009). A meta-analytic review of guided
notes. Education and Treatment of Children, 32,
421-444.
61
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • CLASS NOTES PROVIDE A STUDENT COPY. Provide a
    copy of class notes to allow the student to focus
    more fully on the lecture and class discussion.
    This strategy can be strengthened by requiring
    that the student highlight key vocabulary terms
    appearing in the prepared notes as they are
    brought up in the lecture or discussion.

4
Source International Dyslexia Association.
(2002). Accommodating students with dyslexia in
all classroom settings. Retrieved from
http//www.interdys.org/
62
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • CLASS NOTES PROVIDE LECTURE OUTLINE. Make up an
    outline of the lecture to share with students.
    Encourage students to use the elements of the
    outline to help to structure their class notes
    and to ensure that their notes do not omit
    important information.

5
SourceInternational Dyslexia Association.
(2002). Accommodating students with dyslexia in
all classroom settings. Retrieved from
http//www.interdys.org/
63
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • INCREASE OPPORTUNITIES TO RESPOND. Provide the
    student with increased classroom opportunities
    for active academic responding. Examples of
    active student responding are reading aloud,
    responding in writing or orally to a teacher
    question, and collaborating with a peer to solve
    a math problem.

6
SourceKern, L, Clemens, N. (2007). Antecedent
strategies to promote appropriate classroom
behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 44(1), 65-75.
64
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • INTERSPERSE LOW- AND HIGH-INTEREST ACTIVITIES.
    When structuring a lesson, switch between
    less-appealing and more-appealing activities in
    short spans to hold student interest.

7
Source Barkley, R. A. (2008). 80 classroom
accommodations for children or teens with ADHD.
The ADHD Report, 16(4), 7-10.
65
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • LECTURE SUMMARIZE OFTEN. When lecturing, review
    and reinforce student understanding through
    repetition, paraphrase, and frequent
    summarization of important points.

8
Source Beech, M. (2010). Accommodations
Assisting students with disabilities. Florida
Department of Education. Retrieved from
http//www.fldoe.org/ese/pdf/accomm-educator.pdf
66
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • LECTURE TIE INFORMATION TO COURSE READINGS. When
    presenting important course concepts during
    lecture, explicitly link that content to page
    references in the course text or other assigned
    readings that also cover that information. In
    class notes, also link important information to
    the course text by page number.

9
Source Beech, M. (2010). Accommodations
Assisting students with disabilities. Florida
Department of Education. Retrieved from
http//www.fldoe.org/ese/pdf/accomm-educator.pdf
67
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • MATCH WORK TO PEAK ENERGY PERIODS. Schedule the
    most challenging academic subjects, tasks, or
    activities when students energy levels are
    highest (e.g., at the start of the day or class
    period).

10
Source Barkley, R. A. (2008). 80 classroom
accommodations for children or teens with ADHD.
The ADHD Report, 16(4), 7-10.
68
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • PREPARE READING GUIDES. Develop reading guides
    to help students to better access demanding texts
    in the course or content area. Reading guides
    provide a general map of the text, summarize main
    ideas and key details presented, and offer tips
    and pose questions to alert the reader to
    important content. Depending on student needs,
    reading guides can deal broadly with whole
    sections of a text or focus more specifically on
    chapters or sub-chapters.

11
Source International Dyslexia Association.
(2002). Accommodating students with dyslexia in
all classroom settings. Retrieved from
http//www.interdys.org/
69
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • PREPARE WEEKLY HOMEWORK ASIGNMENTS. Share weekly
    listings of upcoming homework assignments with
    the student. Also, ensure that these homework
    assignments are shared with the students
    parent(s), to help them to support their childs
    homework completion.

12
Source Barkley, R. A. (2008). 80 classroom
accommodations for children or teens with ADHD.
The ADHD Report, 16(4), 7-10.
70
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • SET A REASONABLE HOMEWORK QUOTA. Limit homework
    to a manageable amount of work. Use this formula
    to estimate an appropriate homework load 10
    minutes times the students grade level equals an
    appropriate TOTAL time devoted to nightly
    homework.

13
Source Barkley, R. A. (2008). 80 classroom
accommodations for children or teens with ADHD.
The ADHD Report, 16(4), 7-10.
71
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • TEST ALLOW EXTRA TIME. For tests that evaluate
    student knowledge or skills but do not formally
    assess speed/fluency with fixed time limits,
    allow all students a reasonable amount of
    additional time if needed.

14
Source Nelson, J. (2000). Student preferences
for adaptations in classroom testing. Remedial
Special Education, 21, 21, 41-52.
72
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • TEST ALLOW OPEN-BOOK/OPEN-NOTES. In situations
    in which students are being tested on their
    ability to apply rather than memorizecourse
    information or concepts, allow students full
    access to their textbooks and/or notes during the
    test.

15
Source Nelson, J. (2000). Student preferences
for adaptations in classroom testing. Remedial
Special Education, 21, 21, 41-52.
73
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • TEST EVALUATE MORE FREQUENTLY. Assess student
    mastery of course content frequently (e.g.,
    weekly) through shorter quizzes in place of
    lessfrequent, more-comprehensive tests. More
    frequent, smaller assessments can make study more
    manageable for students, build strong habits of
    continual study and review, and provide more
    formative assessment information for the teacher.

16
Source Nelson, J. (2000). Student preferences
for adaptations in classroom testing. Remedial
Special Education, 21, 21, 41-52.
74
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • TEST HIGHLIGHT KEY WORDS IN DIRECTIONS. When
    preparing test directions, highlight key words or
    phrases in bold or underline to draw student
    attention.

17
Source Nelson, J. (2000). Student preferences
for adaptations in classroom testing. Remedial
Special Education, 21, 21, 41-52.
75
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • TEST PRACTICE UNDER TEST CONDITIONS. Create
    practice tests that mimic the actual test in
    format and environmental conditions (e.g., with
    time limits). Have the student complete practice
    tests to build endurance, reduce test anxiety.

18
Source Beech, M. (2010). Accommodations
Assisting students with disabilities. Florida
Department of Education. Retrieved from
http//www.fldoe.org/ese/pdf/accomm-educator.pdf
76
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • TEST PROVIDE EXTRA SPACE. Format tests with
    extra space to write answers. This formatting
    change has two advantages (1) it can accommodate
    students who have difficulty writing in small
    spaces due to fine-motor issues, and (2) it can
    result in a neater test that looks less crowded
    and therefore less intimidating.

19
Source Nelson, J. (2000). Student preferences
for adaptations in classroom testing. Remedial
Special Education, 21, 21, 41-52.
77
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • USE GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS. Select the graphic
    organizer(s) (e.g., outline, chart, or other
    visual representation) most appropriate to help
    the student to better understand course content
    by noting key ideas, recording important details,
    making specific connections between concepts,
    etc. To adequately use graphic organizers,
    students should first be explicitly trained in
    their use. Teachers should also require that
    students turn in completed organizers
    periodically to monitor their use and
    effectiveness.

20
Source International Dyslexia Association.
(2002). Accommodating students with dyslexia in
all classroom settings. Retrieved from
http//www.interdys.org/
78
Instructional Adjustments/Accommodations
Instruction
  • USE WHITEBOARDS FOR STUDENT RESPONDING. Reduce
    impulsive responding and increase student
    participation by providing all students with
    small white boards and markers. The teacher (1)
    poses a question, (2) directs students to write
    their answers on whiteboards, and then (3)
    prompts all students in unison to hold up their
    whiteboards for teacher review.

21
Source Barkley, R. A. (2008). 80 classroom
accommodations for children or teens with ADHD.
The ADHD Report, 16(4), 7-10.
79
Activity Finding Accommodations For Your
Classroom
  • In your groups
  • Glance over the accommodations ideas that appear
    on pp. 23-38 of your handout.
  • Identify at least 2 ideas from this list that you
    think might be helpful to use with students in
    your classroom.

80
AccommodationFinder http//www.interventioncentral
.org/tools/accommodationfinderThis application
allows the user to browse a set of 60 classroom
accommodations to put together a unique plan for
a struggling learner.
81
Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing next
Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
82
The Effect of Grammar Instruction as an
Independent Activity
  • Grammar instruction in the studies reviewed
    for the Writing Next report involved the
    explicit and systematic teaching of the parts of
    speech and structure of sentences. The
    meta-analysis found an effect for this type of
    instruction for students across the full range of
    ability, but surprisingly, this effect was
    negativeSuch findings raise serious questions
    about some educators enthusiasm for traditional
    grammar instruction as a focus of writing
    instruction for adolescents.Overall, the
    findings on grammar instruction suggest that,
    although teaching grammar is important,
    alternative procedures, such as sentence
    combining, are more effective than traditional
    approaches for improving the quality of students
    writing. p. 21

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education.
83
  • Elements of effective writing instruction for
    adolescents
  • Writing Process (Effect Size 0.82) Students
    are taught a process for planning, revising, and
    editing.
  • Summarizing (Effect Size 0.82) Students are
    taught methods to identify key points, main ideas
    from readings to write summaries of source texts.
  • Cooperative Learning Activities (Collaborative
    Writing) (Effect Size 0.75) Students are
    placed in pairs or groups with learning
    activities that focus on collaborative use of the
    writing process.
  • Goal-Setting (Effect Size 0.70) Students set
    specific product goals for their writing and
    then check their attainment of those
    self-generated goals.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
84
  • Elements of effective writing instruction for
    adolescents
  • Writing Processors (Effect Size 0.55) Students
    have access to computers/word processors in the
    writing process.
  • Sentence Combining (Effect Size 0.50) Students
    take part in instructional activities that
    require the combination or embedding of simpler
    sentences (e.g., Noun-Verb-Object) to generate
    more advanced, complex sentences.
  • Prewriting (Effect Size 0.32) Students learn
    to select, develop, or organize ideas to
    incorporate into their writing by participating
    in structured pre-writing activities.
  • Inquiry Activities (Effect Size 0.32) Students
    become actively engaged researchers, collecting
    and analyzing information to guide the ideas and
    content for writing assignments.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
85
  • Elements of effective writing instruction for
    adolescents
  • Process Writing (Effect Size 0.32) Writing
    instruction is taught in a workshop format that
    stresses extended writing opportunities,
    writing for authentic audiences, personalized
    instruction, and cycles of writing (Graham
    Perin, 2007 p. 4).
  • Use of Writing Models (Effect Size 0.25)
    Students read and discuss models of good writing
    and use them as exemplars for their own writing.
  • Writing to Learn Content (Effect Size 0.23)
    The instructor incorporates writing activities as
    a means to have students learn content material.

Source Graham, S., Perin, D. (2007). Writing
next Effective strategies to improve writing of
adolescents in middle and high schools A report
to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington,
DC Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved
from http//www.all4ed.org/files/WritingNext.pdf
86
Classroom Academic Instruction/Interventions
Syntax/Grammar
87
Sentence Combining (pp. 16-18)
  • Students with poor writing skills often write
    sentences that lack syntactic maturity. Their
    sentences often follow a simple, stereotyped
    format. A promising approach to teach students
    use of diverse sentence structures is through
    sentence combining. In sentence combining,
    students are presented with kernel sentences and
    given explicit instruction in how to weld these
    kernel sentences into more diverse sentence types
    either
  • by using connecting words to combine multiple
    sentences into one or
  • by isolating key information from an otherwise
    superfluous sentence and embedding that important
    information into the base sentence.

Sources Saddler, B. (2005). Sentence combining
A sentence-level writing intervention. The
Reading Teacher, 58, 468-471. Strong, W. (1986).
Creative approaches to sentence combining.
Urbana, OL ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and
Communication Skill National Council of
Teachers of English.
88
Formatting Sentence Combining Examples
89
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90
(No Transcript)
91
(No Transcript)
92
Discussion Interventions and Writing
  • In your groups, discuss how teachers can use a
    strategy like sentence combining in their classes
    to reinforce course content as well as strengthen
    student writing skills

93
Where to Find High-Quality Tier 2/3 Intervention
Programs for Middle High School Students
94
What Works Clearinghouse http//ies.ed.gov/ncee/ww
c/This website reviews core instruction and
intervention programs in mathematics, as well as
other academic areas. The site reviews existing
studies and draws conclusions about whether
specific intervention programs show evidence of
effectiveness.
95
Best Evidence Encyclopedia http//www.bestevidence
.org/This site provides reviews of
evidence-based math and reading programs. The
website is sponsored by the Johns Hopkins
University School of Education's Center for
Data-Driven Reform in Education (CDDRE) .
96
National Center on RTI Instructional
Intervention Tools Chart http//www.rti4success.or
g/instructionToolsSponsored by the National
Center on RTI, this page provides ratings to
intervention programs in math, reading, and
writing.Users can sort their search by subject
and grade level.
97
Doing What Works http//dww.ed.gov/This website
is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education
and offers specific guidelines for how to teach
effectively across disciplines. The site has a
section devoted to math and science, including
pragmatic recommendations for putting into
classroom practice the specific recommendations
of the National Math Advisory Panel Report of
2008.
98
Methods of Classroom Data Collection Starter
SetTopics How to Structure Data Collection
Baseline, Goal, Progress-Monitoring Examples of
Teacher-Friendly Methods of Data Collection
(Behavior Ratings Global Skills Checklists)
99
Interventions Potential Fatal Flaws
  • Any intervention must include 4 essential
    elements. The absence of any one of the elements
    would be considered a fatal flaw (Witt,
    VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004)
  • Clearly defined problem. The students target
    concern is stated in specific, observable,
    measureable terms. This problem identification
    statement is the most important step of the
    problem-solving model (Bergan, 1995), as a
    clearly defined problem allows the teacher or RTI
    Team to select a well-matched intervention to
    address it.
  • Baseline data. The teacher or RTI Team measures
    the students academic skills in the target
    concern (e.g., reading fluency, math computation)
    prior to beginning the intervention. Baseline
    data becomes the point of comparison throughout
    the intervention to help the school to determine
    whether the intervention is effective.

Source Witt, J. C., VanDerHeyden, A. M.,
Gilbertson, D. (2004). Troubleshooting behavioral
interventions. A systematic process for finding
and eliminating problems. School Psychology
Review, 33, 363-383.
100
Interventions Potential Fatal Flaws (Cont.)
  1. Performance goal. The teacher or RTI Team sets a
    specific, data-based goal for student improvement
    during the intervention and a checkpoint date by
    which the goal should be attained.
  2. Progress-monitoring plan. The teacher or RTI Team
    collects student data regularly to determine
    whether the student is on-track to reach the
    performance goal.

Source Witt, J. C., VanDerHeyden, A. M.,
Gilbertson, D. (2004). Troubleshooting behavioral
interventions. A systematic process for finding
and eliminating problems. School Psychology
Review, 33, 363-383.
101
The Structure of Data Collection
  • Teachers can use a wide variety of methods to
    assess student academic performance or behavior.
  • However, data collection should be structured to
    include these elements baseline, the setting of
    a goal for improvement, and regular
    progress-monitoring.
  • The structure of data collection can be thought
    of as a glass into which a wide variety of data
    can be poured.

102
Classroom Data Collection 6 Sample Methods
103
  • Existing data. The teacher uses information
    already being collected in the classroom or
    school that is relevant to the identified student
    problem. Examples of existing data include
    grades, attendance/tardy records, office
    disciplinary referrals, homework completion.

1
104
Existing Data Example
  • Example Mrs. Berman, a high-school social
    studies teacher, selected grades from weekly
    quizzes as one measure to determine if a
    study-skills intervention would help Rick, a
    student in her class. Prior to the intervention,
    the teacher computed the average of Ricks most
    recent 4 quiz grades. The baseline average quiz
    grade for Rick was 61. Mrs. Smith set an average
    quiz grade of 75 as the intervention goal. The
    teacher decided that at the intervention check-up
    in six weeks, she would average the most recent 2
    weekly quiz grades to see if the student reached
    the goal.

105
  • Behavioral Frequency Count. In a behavioral
    frequency count, an observer (e.g., the teacher)
    watches a students behavior and keeps a
    cumulative tally of the number of times that the
    behavior is observed during a given period.
    Behaviors that are best measured using frequency
    counts have clearly observable beginning and end
    pointsand are of relatively short duration.
    Examples include student call-outs, requests for
    teacher help during independent seatwork, and
    raising ones hand to make a contribution to
    large-group discussion.
  • TIP Instead of trying to tally all behaviors
    observed, teachers can make frequency count more
    manageable by tallying the number of times that
    they must approach a student to redirect that
    student from a problem behavior.

2
106
Sample Behavior Frequency Count Form (Available
on Conference Web Page)
107
Behavioral Frequency Count/Behavioral Rate
Example
  • Example Ms. Stimson, an 8th-grade teacher, was
    concerned at the frequency that a student, Alice,
    frequently requested teacher assistance
    unnecessarily during independent seatwork. To
    address this concern, the teacher designed an
    intervention in which the student would first try
    several steps on her own to resolve issues or
    answer her questions before seeking help from the
    instructor. Prior to starting the intervention,
    the teacher kept a behavioral frequency count
    across three days of the number of times that the
    student approached her desk for help during a
    daily 20-minute independent seatwork period
    (baseline).
  • Ms. Stimson discovered that, on average, the
    student sought requested help 8 times per period
    (equivalent to 0.4 requests for help per minute).
    Ms. Stimson set as an intervention goal that,
    after 4 weeks of using her self-help strategies,
    the students average rate of requesting help
    would drop to 1 time per independent seatwork
    period (equivalent to 0.05 requests for help per
    minute).

108
  • Work Products. Student work products can be
    collected and evaluated to judge whether the
    student is incorporating information taught in
    the course, applying cognitive strategies that
    they have been taught, or remediating academic
    delays. Examples of work products are math
    computation worksheets, journal entries, and
    written responses to end-of-chapter questions
    from the course textbook.Whenever teachers
    collect student work products, they should also
    assess the performance of typical peers in the
    classroom. Work products can be assessed in
    several ways to yield objective numeric data. For
    example, the teacher can estimate the percentage
    of work completed on an assignment or the
    accuracy of the work actually completed--or use a
    rubric to assess quality of writing or other
    student work.

3
109
Work Products Example
  • Example Mrs. Franchione, a social studies
    teacher, identified her eighth-grade student,
    Alexandria, as having difficulty with course
    content. The student was taught to use question
    generation as a strategy to better identify the
    main ideas in her course readings.
  • Mrs. Franchione decided to assess Alexandrias
    student journal entries. Each week, Mrs.
    Franchione assigned students 5 key vocabulary
    terms and directed them to answer a social
    studies essay question while incorporating all 5
    terms. She also selected 3 typical students to
    serve as peer comparisons.. Mrs. Franchione
    decided to assess Alexandrias journal entries
    according to the following criteria
  • Presence of weekly assigned vocabulary words in
    the student essay
  • Unambiguous, correct use of each assigned
    vocabulary term in context
  • Overall quality of the student essay on a scale
    of 1 (significantly below peers) to 4
    (significantly above peers).

110
  • Rating scales. A scale is developed with one or
    more items that a rater can use to complete a
    global rating of a behavior. Often the rating
    scale is completed at the conclusion of a fixed
    observation period (e.g., after each class
    period at the end of the school day). Here is an
    example of a rating scale item Brian focused his
    attention on teacher instructions, classroom
    lessons and assigned work. 1Poor 2Fair 3Good.

4
111
Monitoring Student Academic or General
BehaviorsBehavior Report Cards
112
Behavior Report Cards (BRCs) Are
  • brief forms containing student behavior-rating
    items. The teacher typically rates the student
    daily (or even more frequently) on the BRC. The
    results can be graphed to document student
    response to an intervention.

113
Behavior Report Cards Can Monitor Many Behaviors,
Including
  • Hyperactivity
  • On-Task Behavior (Attention)
  • Work Completion
  • Organization Skills
  • Compliance With Adult Requests
  • Ability to Interact Appropriately With Peers

114
Behavior Report Card Maker
  • Helps teachers to define student problem(s) more
    clearly.
  • Reframes student concern(s) as replacement
    behaviors, to increase the likelihood for success
    with the academic or behavioral intervention.
  • Provides a fixed response format each day to
    increase the consistency of feedback about the
    teachers concern(s).
  • Can serve as a vehicle to engage other important
    players (student and parent) in defining the
    problem(s), monitoring progress, and implementing
    interventions.

115
Behavior Report Card Maker www.interventioncentral
.org
116
Behavior Report Card Maker www.interventioncentral
.org Example Daily Report Card
117
Behavior Report Card Example
  • Example All of the teachers on a 7th-grade
    instructional team decided to use a Behavior
    Report to monitor classroom interventions for
    Ray, a student who presented challenges of
    inattention, incomplete work, and occasional
    non-compliance. They created a BRC with the
    following items
  • Ray focused his attention on teacher
    instructions, classroom lessons and assigned
    work.
  • Ray completed and turned in his assigned class
    work on time.
  • Ray spoke respectfully and complied with adult
    requests without argument or complaint.
  • Each rating items was rated using a 1-9 scale
  • On average, Ray scored no higher than 3
    (Never/Seldom range) on all rating items in all
    classrooms (baseline). The team set as an
    intervention goal that, by the end of a 6-week
    intervention to be used in all classrooms, Ray
    would be rated in the 7-9 range (Most/All of the
    Time) in all classrooms.

118
  • Global skill checklist. The teacher selects a
    global skill (e.g., homework completion
    independent seatwork) and breaks that global
    skill down into a checklist of component
    sub-skills--a process known as discrete
    categorization (Kazdin, 1989). An observer
    (e.g., teacher, another adult, or even the
    student) can then use the checklist to note
    whether a student successfully displays each of
    the sub-skills on a given day.

5
119
Academic Survival Skills Checklistspp. 19-21
120
Academic Survival Skills Checklists A Tool to
Help Students to Manage Their Own Learning
  • Students who would achieve success on ambitious
    state standards must first cultivate a set of
    general 'academic survival skills' that they can
    apply to any coursework (DiPerna, 2006).
  • Examples of academic survival skills include the
    ability to study effectively, be organized, and
    manage time well.
  • When academic survival skills are described in
    global terms, though, it can be difficult to
    define them. For example, two teachers may have
    different understandings about what the term
    'study skills' means.

Source DiPerna, J. C. (2006). Academic enablers
and student achievement Implications for
assessment and intervention services in the
schools. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 7-17.
121
Academic Survival Skills Checklists A Tool to
Help Students to Manage Their Own Learning (Cont.)
  • A solution is to complete a 'task analysis' of a
    given global academic-survival skill, dividing
    that larger skill into a checklist of component
    sub-skills (Kazdin, 1989). With a checklist
    that breaks a global academic survival skill into
    components, a teacher can judge whether a student
    possesses the essential building-block strategies
    that make up a larger global 'survival skills'
    term. Teachers have access to good sources of
    information to verify what academic survival
    skills a student possesses, including direct
    observation interviews (of the student, past
    teacher, or parent) and student work products.

SourceKazdin, A. E. (1989). Behavior
modification in applied settings (4th ed.).
Pacific Gove, CA Brooks/Cole.
122
Academic Survival Skills Checklist Study Skills
Example p. 19
Source Academic Survival Skills Checklist Maker.
(2012). Retrieved from http//www.interventioncent
ral.org/tools/academic-survival-skills-checklist-m
aker
123
Academic Survival Skills Checklist Study Skills
Example
Source Academic Survival Skills Checklist Maker.
(2012). Retrieved from http//www.interventioncent
ral.org/tools/academic-survival-skills-checklist-m
aker
124
Academic Survival Skills Checklist Study Skills
Example
Source Academic Survival Skills Checklist Maker.
(2012). Retrieved from http//www.interventioncent
ral.org/tools/academic-survival-skills-checklist-m
aker
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