Mycelium in the PRV

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Mycelium in the PRV
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I. Evolution of Land Plants

• Land plants arose from mutualistic relationships
  between fungi and green algae
• Evidence
• Over 90 of land plants have symbioses with
  mycorrhizal fungi
• Fungi aid in water and nutrient uptake,
• Plants provide fungi with sugars due to
  photosynthetic ability
• Incorporation of fungi into seeds
• VAM associations revealed in palaeobotanical
  study
• Genes required for mycorrhizal associations
  present in ancestors of land plants

(Stamets, 2005)
(Margulis Fester Eds., 1991)
(Wang et al., 2009)
(Brundrett, 2002)
3
http//mycorrhizas.info/evolution/root-evolution.g
if
4
II. Types of Fungi

• Saprophytic decomposers (soil builders)
• Example in Potomac River Valley

(Stamets, 2005)
Morels (black, yellow) can be saprophytic and
also mycorrhizal
(Kuo, 2007)
http//michiganmushroomhunters.org/Images/morels/B
lack20morel.jpg
5
II. Types of Fungi

• Parasitic inflict cankers/lesions on trees
• Example Phytophthora ramorum - causes sudden
  oak disease
• Link to PRV Oaks in PRV are
• susceptible to this fungal pathogen

(Stamets, 2005)
(Virginia Bioinformatics Institute, 2004)
http//cisr.ucr.edu/sudden_oak_death.html
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II. Types of Fungi

• Mycorrhizal form mutualisms with plants
• Ectomycorrhizal-form sheaths around the roots of
  partner plants
• Endomycorrhizal-invade interior root cells of
  host plants (also called vesicular arbuscular
  mycorrhizae, VAM

(Stamets, 2005)
(Margulis Fester Eds., 1991)
http//www.palaeos.com/Plants/Lists/Glossary/Image
s/Endomycorrhizae.gif
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II. Types of Fungi

• Benefits of mycorrhizal associations
• Increased length and surface area for absorption
• Cool fact Absorption capacity of mycorrhizal
  fungi may be 10-100 times greater than SA of
  leaves in a forest

(Stamets, 2005)
http//www3.ntu.edu.sg/home/mvvkulish/Image21.jpg
http//www.technion.ac.il/mdcourse/274203/slides/
Digestive20tract/17-Intestinal20villi20Jejunum-
A.jpg http//course1.winona.edu/sberg/IMAGES/mito3
.gif
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II. Types of Fungi
(Johnson et al., 2006)
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II. Types of Fungi

• 2. Nutrient sharing (one mushroom species can
  connect many acres of a forest in a continuous
  network of cells)
• Link to coevolution
• Possibility of fungi providing more nutrients to
  a tree with which it forms a better mutualistic
  association (positive feedback)

(Stamets, 2005)
(Johnson et al., 2006)
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II. Types of Fungi
Ectomycorrhizal
Shaded
Douglas Fir
Western Red Cedar
Nutrient Sharing
Paper Birch
Endomycorrhizal
(Stamets, 2005)
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II. Types of Fungi

• Example of nutrient sharing
• Douglas fir and paper birch connected by one type
  of ectomycorrhizal fungi
• Western Red Cedar in a mutualistic relationship
  with a different type of mycorrhizae (a VAM)
• Differential shading led to change in nutrient
  flow (from birch to fir)
• Amount of carbon transferred is directly related
  to amount of shading
• Possibly helps saplings survive under canopy?
  (Link to dogwoods in PRV coming later!)

(Stamets, 2005)
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II. Types of Fungi

• Benefits continued
• 3. Resistance to pests
• 4. Tolerance of extreme conditions

(Bouchez Roncho, 2008)
(Johnson et al., 2006)
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II. Types of Fungi

• Benefits continued
• 5. Soil aggregation
• 6. Reduced erosion

(Johnson et al., 2006)
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II. Types of Fungi

• Benefits on different ecological scales

(Johnson et al., 2006)
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II. Types of Fungi

• Endophytic mutualistic fungi that live inside
  plants
• Ex Endophytic fungi in grasses produce
  mycotoxins that offer protection from grazers

(Faeth, 2002)
http//www.ifsqn.com/images/cow.gif
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III. Plants of the Potomac River Gorge and
Surrounding Area

• Corridor of biodiversity
• Variety of seeds brought to PRV due to diverse
  ecosystems in watershed
• Gorge is surrounded by unique rock formations
  called bedrock terraces
• 1,400 different kinds of plants grow in the
  Potomac Valley Gorge

(Cohen, 2005)
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III. Plants of the Potomac River Gorge and
Surrounding Area

• Examples of herbaceous plants include wild
  columbine, golden rod lyre-leaved rock cress,
  Virginia blue bells, Dutchmens breeches,
  jewelweed and wild ramps (leeks)
• Examples of woody plants include white ash, red
  maple, sycamore, sugar maples, red white oaks,
  hickory and flowering dogwoods
• Examples of woody shrub-like plants include hop
  hornbeam and bladdernut

(Cohen, 2005)
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III. Plants of the Potomac River Gorge and
Surrounding Area

• What type of plant is this? (Game!)

Hickory!
(Cohen, 2005)
http//www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncPIf
.shtml
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III. Plants of the Potomac River Gorge and
Surrounding Area

• What type of plant is this? (Game!)

Red Maple!
(Cohen, 2005)
http//www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncPIf
.shtml
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III. Plants of the Potomac River Gorge and
Surrounding Area

• What type of plant is this? (Game!)

Switch grass!
(Cohen, 2005)
http//www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncPIf
.shtml
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III. Plants of the Potomac River Gorge and
Surrounding Area

• What type of plant is this? (Game!)

Sycamore!
(Cohen, 2005)
http//www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncPIf
.shtml
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III. Plants of the Potomac River Gorge and
Surrounding Area

• What type of plant is this? (Game!)

Silver Maple!
(Cohen, 2005)
http//www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncPIf
.shtml
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III. Plants of the Potomac River Gorge and
Surrounding Area

• What type of plant is this? (Game!)

Western Sunflower!
(Cohen, 2005)
http//www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncPIf
.shtml
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III. Plants of the Potomac River Gorge and
Surrounding Area

• What type of plant is this? (Game!)

White Ash!
(Cohen, 2005)
http//www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncPIf
.shtml
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III. Plants of the Potomac River Gorge and
Surrounding Area

• What type of plant is this? (Game!)

White oak!
(Cohen, 2005)
http//www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncPIf
.shtml
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III. Plants of the Potomac River Gorge and
Surrounding Area

• What type of plant is this? (Game!)

Virginia Bluebells!
(Cohen, 2005)
http//www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncPIf
.shtml
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IV. PRV Mutualisms

• Mycorrhizae and tree mutualisms
• Cantharellus cibarius (ectomycorrhizal) and
  Quercus rubra (Northern red oak)
• Fraxinus americana (white ash) and morels (many
  different species)

(Stamets, 2005)
http//www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncTIg
.shtml
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IV. PRV Mutualisms

• Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida) Fungi
• Mycorrhizal fungi allocate nutrients to dogwoods
  (an understory tree) from canopy trees
• Pathogenic fungi (Dogwood anthracnose or Discula
  destructiva)

(Kuo, 2007) http//www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_he
ritage/ncTIIIc.shtml (Carr Banas, 2000)
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IV. PRV Mutualisms

• Mycorrhizae and herbaceous plants
• Wild leeks (also called ramps) form mutualistic
  relationships with mycelium which promote leek
  health by
• Bioremediation
• Increasing surface area for water uptake
• Changing physical and chemical properties of soil

(Leyval Binet, 1998)
http//greayer.com/studiog/wp-content/uploads/2009
/04/mosaic1602239.jpg
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IV. PRV Mutualisms

• Fungal and animal mutualisms
• Gyrodon merulioides-a fungi found near white ash
• Forms a mutualistic relationship with
  Meliarhizophagus fraxinifolii (leafcurl ash
  aphid)
• Fungi form structures that surround/protect
  aphid
• Aphids provide honeydew to fungi

(Kuo, 2007)
http//mycorrhizas.info/methods/ash-bolete-aphid.j
pg
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IV. PRV Mutualisms

• Fungal and animal mutualisms
• Marsh periwinkle and fungi
• Snail eats fungi and then defecates on marsh
  grass
• Fungi break down marsh grass, snail returns and
  eats fungi and digested marsh grass

(Silliman Newell, 2003)
http//www.frauleindi.com/images/HHNature/OurSaltM
arsh-MarshPeriwinkles.jpg
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V. Fungal Associations and History

• Example Salem witch trials
• Thought questions
• Did mycorrhizal interactions affect the formation
  of civilizations (dependence on agriculture)? If
  so, how?
• How will/does the use of fungicides affect
  agriculture?
• How can we apply our knowledge of fungal
  mutualisms to enhance crop production?

(Le Couteur Burreson, 2003)
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V. Fungal Associations and History

• How can we apply our knowledge of fungal
  mutualisms to enhance crop production?
• Example 1 Insect control
• Production of mycotoxins by endophytes can be
  used to kill insects.
• Link to PRV Could lead to decreased use of
  insecticides.

(Stamets, 2005)
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V. Fungal Associations and History

• How can we apply our knowledge of fungal
  mutualisms to enhance crop production?
• Example 2 Microbial Control
• Application of endophytes to cocoa trees led to a
  decline in leaf necrosis (possible antimicrobial
  activity?)
• Application of an endophyte (called
  Piriformospora indica) to wheat plants caused an
  increase in biomass and seed production by
  protecting roots from pathogenic microorganisms
• Link to PRV Could be biodefensive
  (antimicrobial) against fungus that causes sudden
  oak disease or the fungus that affects the
  dogwoods.

(Stamets, 2005)
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V. Fungal Associations and History

• How can we apply our knowledge of fungal
  mutualisms to enhance crop production?
• Example 3 Heat and Drought Tolerance
• Dusting wheat with extremophile endophytes from
  Yellowstone conferred increased drought
  resistance
• Barley associated with mycorrhizae grew better
  under poor conditions (drought, addition of
  xenobiotics) than barley without fungal
  associations
• Link to PRV Could be used in fields surrounding
  the PRV which could promote increased yield due
  to tolerance of drought conditions and increased
  ability to produce biomass without fertilizers.

(Stamets, 2005)
(Khalvati et. al, 2009)
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VI. Conserving the PRV

• Future and current threats to biodiversity of
  Potomac River Gorge plant species include (in
  order of impact)
• 1. Development
• 2. Invasion of non-native species (currently 273
  exotic species grow within the gorge including
  English ivy and Japanese honeysuckle)
• 3. Overabundance of foraging deer (78 per square
  mile in VA, 40 is considered too much)
• 4. Too many visitors (over 3.5 million each year)

(Cohen, 2005)
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VI. Conserving the PRV

• Possible methods to conserve the PRV using fungi
  as a means of ecological restoration and
  facilitation
• Mycorestoratin through
• Mycofiltration (purifying water)
• Mycoforestry (ecoforestry policy)
• Mycoremediation (denaturing toxic wastes)
• Mycopesticides (controlling insect pests)

(Stamets, 2005)
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VI. Conserving the PRV

• Problem 1 Fossil fuel emissions
• Fossil fuels release polyaromatic hydrocarbons
  (PAHs)
• One experiment found that increasing amounts of
  PAHs in the soil decreased mycorrhizal
  colonization of plant roots
• The same experiment found that plants with
  mycorrhizal associations were able to survive and
  grow in soils with higher amounts of PAH than
  plants without these associations

(Leyval Binet, 1998)
(Bouchez et. al, 1995)
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VI. Conserving the PRV

• Possible reasons for these findings include
• Mycorrhizae bioremediate through bacterial
  recruitment and improving soil conditions
• Bacteria that are recruited can use PAHs as a
  source of carbon and thus break them down and
  detoxify them
• Link to PRV Leeks (wild ramps in the PRV) were
  used in this study and could help detoxify fossil
  fuel emissions from major highways

(Leyval Binet, 1998)
(Bouchez et. al, 1995)
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(Whelan Rock, 2006)
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VI. Conserving the PRV

• Problem 2 Input of nitrates into Chesapeake
  Bay
• One experiment found that Paxillus involutus, a
  mycelium associated with Picea abies (Norway
  spruce) and (Betula pendula) silver birch
  increased nitrate assimilation (although it was
  affected by pH)
• Are there any mutualisms in the PRV that do this?
  

(Andersson et. al, 1994)
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VII. Link to Final Product

• How can we use mycorrhizaes ability to
  bioremediate to decrease levels of pollutants at
  lower points in the PRV watershed in order to
  protect other kinds of symbioses found in the PRV?

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References

• Beltrano, J.   Ronco, M.G. (2008). Improved
  tolerance of wheat plants (Triticum aestivum
  L.) to drought stress and rewatering by the
  arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus claroideum
  effect on growth and cell membrane stability.
  Braz. J. Plant Physiol. online. 20(1), 29-37 .
  Retrieved from lthttp//www.scielo.br/scielo.php?s
  criptsci_arttextpidS1677- 04202008000100004lng
  ennrmisogt. ISSN 1677-0420.  doi
  10.1590/S1677-04202008000100004.
• Bouchez, M., Blanchet, D., and Vandercasteele,
  J.P. (1995). Degradation of polycyclic
  aromatic hydrocarbons by pure strains and by
  defined strain associations inhibition
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• Brundrett, M. C. (2002). Coevolution of roots and
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  154(2), 275-304.
• Carr, D. E., Banas, L. E. (2000). Dogwood
  Anthracnose (Discula Destructiva) Effects of
  and Consequences for Host (Cornus Florida)
  Demography. American Midland Naturalist, 143(1),
  169-177.   
• Cohen, J.P. (2005). A wild river runs through
  Washington. Smithsonian ZooGoer 34(6).
  Retrieved from http//nationalzoo.si.edu/Publica
  tions/ZooGoer/2005/6/potomac.cfm

44
References

• Ek, H., Andersson, S., Arnebrant, K.,
  Söderström, B. (1994). Growth and Assimilation
  of NH4 and NO3 - by Paxillus involutus in
  Association with Betula pendula and Picea abies
  as Affected by Substrate pH. New Phytologist,
  128(4), 629-637.  
• Faeth, S. H. (2002). Are endophytic fungi
  defensive plant mutualists? Oikos, 98(1), 25-36.
   
• Johnson, N. C., Jason D. Hoeksema, Bever, J. D.,
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• Khalvati, M., Bernadett, B., Dupigny, A. and
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45
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