Unit 5: Personality and Individuality

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Unit 5 Personality and Individuality

• Ch 13 Psychological Testing
• Ch 14 Theories of Personality

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Ch 13 Psychological Testing

• Characteristics of psychological testing

• One of the ______ of testing is that we tend to
  forget that tests are merely tools for measuring
  predicting ______ ___________.
• We start to think of test results as an
  __________ (ex. IQ tests).
• The fairness usefulness of a test depends on 3
  things
• 1. ___________
• 2. ________
• 3. ________________

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• Reliability

• The ability of a test to give the same _______
  under similar ___________ its ______________.
• There are 3 ways of determining a tests
  reliability
• 1. If a person _______________ or a similar test
  w/in a short time after the 1st testing, they
  should receive approximately the _____________.
• 2. The test should yield the same results when
  scored at different _______ by different _______.
• 3. If the test is randomly split in ½, you should
  receive roughly the ________ on each ½.

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• Validity

• The ability of a test to measure what it is
  ________________.
• ________ to determine than reliability.
• One of the main ways for measuring validity is to
  find out how well a test ___________________.
• Do the people who score high on a test later do
  well like the test says they should?
• One problem that may arise is that the test only
  predicts _________ of what it is supposed to be
  testing.

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• Standardization

• The tests are administered scored in the
  ________ every time establish the ______
  _______ made by a large of people.
• The test should _________ how a person will score
  at a given level, but that ______ ______ how that
  person does against others.
• A percentile system is a ranking of test scores
  that indicates the _______________ lower higher
  than a given score.
• If 50 of people score a 70 or lower, then 70 is
  the 50th percentile. If 75 of people score a 85
  or lower, then 85 is the ____th percentile.
• To make these comparisons, a test is first given
  to a large _________________ of the group to be
  tested (ex. High school freshmen, army privates,
  etc) the percentiles, also known as ______,
  are determined.
• Norms determine how someone compares to others,
  not ___________________ overall.

End Section 1
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• Intelligence

• Believed by most to be the ability to acquire new
  ______ new ________, to adapt to new
  _______________.
• Not all psychologists _______ on this definition.
• Some believe it is what allows you to do well on
  _________________ in school.
• The 2 Factor Theory of Intelligence proposes that
  2 factors contribute to an individuals
  intelligence a persons __________________
  (ability to perform complex mental work like
  problem solving) a persons ______________
  __________ (like verbal or math skills).
• Thurstones Theory of Intelligence proposes that
  intelligence is composed of ____________
  _________________ (verbal comprehension,
  numerical ability, spatial relations, perceptual
  speed, word fluency, memory, inductive
  reasoning). See chart p.349.

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• Gardners Theory of Multiple Intelligences
  proposes that intelligence is more than the
  ability to ____________. Howard Gardner believed
  there are 8 kinds of intelligence
• 1. _______ ability
• 2. Logical-mathematical reasoning
• 3. Spatial ability (mental maps)
• 4. ________
• 5. Bodily-kinesthetic
• 6. __________ (understanding others)
• 7. __________ (understanding oneself)
• 8. Naturalist
• Sternbergs Theory of Intelligence proposes a
  triarchic theory which states that intelligence
  can be divided into 3 ways of __________________.
  They are analytical thinking skills (problem
  solving), _________ thinking (dealing w/ new
  situations), practical thinking skills to help
  adjust to cope w/ ones ________________.

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• Emotional intelligence is the ability to
  perceive, imagine, understand emotions to use
  that information _______________________________.
• It helps us gauge the situation determine an
  _______________________.
• It includes the 4 major aspects of interpersonal
  intrapersonal intelligences
• 1. The ability to perceive express
  emotions accurately _____________.
• 2. The ability to use emotions while
  ___________.
• 3. The ability to understand emotions
  use the knowledge ______________.
• 4. The ability to regulate ones
  emotions to promote _____________.
• Major proponents of this view of intelligence
  have linked emotional intelligence to success in
  the ____________.
• Read p.372-3 The EQ Factor

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• Intelligence tests

• Alfred Binet was a French psychologist who was
  asked by authorities to design an intelligence
  test pick out _____________ to be placed in
  separate classes.
• This led to the development of the Stanford-Binet
  Intelligence Scale which groups items by _______.
  A persons IQ (intelligence quotient) is his/her
  standardized measure of intelligence based on a
  scale in which _____ is average.
• About 95 of people score b/w ___________.
• People who score _______ are usually classified
  as handicapped.
• Mildly handicapped, but educable (55-69)
• Moderately handicapped, but trainable (40-54)
• Severely handicapped (25-39)
• Profoundly handicapped (below 25)
• IQ scores are most useful when related to
  _______________ they are very accurate at
  predicting how well people will do in school.
• Critics argue that IQ testing doesnt
  ________________ intelligence though.

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• Controversy over IQ testing

• Is IQ based on _______________________?
• Researchers have found a high degree of
  heritability (the degree to which a
  characteristic is related to _________
  _________________) in intelligence.
• Although debated, many believe heredity accounts
  for ____ of a persons IQ.
• The richness of the home environment, the quality
  of food, the of _____ all affect a persons
  IQ.
• How does _____________ affect IQ scores?
• A major criticism of IQ tests is that they are
  culturally biased (an aspect of a test in which
  the wording used in questions may be more
  familiar to people of one _____________ than to
  another group).

End Section 2
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• Aptitude tests

• Tests designed to discover a persons _____ to
  predict how well he/she would be able to learn a
  __________.
• Often used to determine what ____________ a
  person might enjoy /or find success in.
• Can also be used to measure aptitude in things
  like language, math, art, music, other
  ______________________.
• The SAT ACT are general aptitude tests designed
  to predict a persons _____________.

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• Achievement tests

• Tests designed to measure how much a person has
  learned in a _____________ or area.
• Instructors students can assess a students
  ____________.
• They are validated in terms of their __________
  validity.
• Many confuse aptitude achievement tests. The
  distinction is in whether the test is used to
  predict __________ (APTITUDE) or to assess what a
  person ____________ (ACHIEVEMENT).

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• Interest inventories

• Test that measures a persons _________
  attitudes in a wide variety of activities to
  identify areas of likely __________.
• There are no _______________ answers.
• These tests are often used to determine what
  career students might find most _____________.
• The more a persons interest patterns correspond
  to those of people in a particular occupation,
  the more likely that person is to
  _________________ in that profession.
• Its important to note that ______ as well as
  interests should be taken into account when
  ____________________.

End Section 3
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• Personality tests

• Tests that assess an individuals ______________,
  identify problems ___________________, to
  predict how he/she might behave in the ________.
• 2 types objective projective.

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• Objective tests

• Tests w/ limited or forced-choices in which a
  person ____________________________.
• The MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
  Inventory) consists of ______________ to which a
  person must respond true/false/cannot say.
• The statements were created then given to
  groups w/ known __________(well-adjusted,
  depressed, etc).
• People take the test their answers are
  ___________to the people in the sample.
• Used to reveal habits, delusions, sexual
  attitudes, ______________________, etc
• The Myers-Briggs Test focuses on how a person
  takes in information, _____________, approaches
  day-to-day tasks. It looks at 4 different areas
  (____________________, practicality vs.
  intuitive, thinking vs. feeling, judging vs.
  perceiving contrast).
• Can be used by businesses to decide who to hire
  or promote, by students to determine their
  _______________, etc

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• Projective tests

• ________________ which people respond to freely,
  giving their interpretations of various test
  stimuli.
• B/c the tests have __________________, what the
  person says must say something about his/her
  needs, wishes, fears, other aspects of
  personality. Its designed to probe a persons
  __________________.
• The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a set of 10 cards
  w/ ______________________ used for interpreting
  responses.
• In addition to a persons responses, the
  psychologist may consider where how he/she
  holds the cards, _________________ before
  answering, etc
• Criticized for lack of ___________ validity.
• The TAT (The Thematic Apperception Test) is a set
  of 20 cards w/ vague but suggestive situations
  individuals _______________ about the pictures.
• Responses are examined for underlining
  motivation, _________________________ problems,
  etc...

End Section 4
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Ch 14 Theories of Personality

• Personality

• The ___________, enduring, unique
  ________________ of a person.
• What is the purpose of personality theories?
• Provide a way of _________ the many
  characteristics about you others.
• Explain _________ among individuals.
• Explore how people conduct their lives.
• Determine how life can be _________.
• Formal personality theories try to make ideas
  about why people act in certain ways ____________
  by stating them precisely testing them
  scientifically.

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• Major schools of personality theory

• There are many ___________________.
• Psychoanalytic theories emphasize the importance
  of ____________________.
• Behaviorist theories emphasize the way rewards
  punishments _____________.
• Social learning theories emphasize the impact of
  _____________________ on personality.
• Cognitive theorists emphasize how our _________,
  perceptions, feelings shape our personalities.
• Humanistic theorists stress ones potential for
  _________.
• Trait theorists emphasize the importance of
  understanding basic _____________
  ________________ like friendliness aggression.

End Section 1
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• Psychoanalytic theories Sigmund Freud

• Developed by Sigmund Freud his followers.
• Freud suggested that the ________ of the tongue
  that people say (Freudian slips) the things
  they _______ are not really mistakes, but were
  clues as to what was going on in their
  unconscious mind. He believed that ________ were
  clues as well.
• Freud was the 1st modern psychologist to suggest
  that every person has a large unconscious, or
  ______, part of his/her mind. He believed that
  many of our experiences arent forgotten but are
  stored in our unconscious continue to
  __________________ personality.
• He also suggested that b/w the conscious
  unconscious is the preconscious which stores
  thoughts memories that can be recalled w/
  relatively ________________.

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• Freud believed the energy in personality comes
  from 2 ________________ life death.
• The death instinct shows up as characteristics
  like destructiveness ____________.
• The life instinct shows up as characteristics
  like erotic _______ _________ urges.
• Freud thought the ___ instinct is more important.

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• Freuds structural concepts of the personality
  are known as the id, ego, superego. They
  explain how _______________________________
  regulated.
• The id is the part of the unconscious personality
  that contains our needs, drives, instincts,
  ________________.
• It __________________________ of desires
  regardless of the consequences.
• The ego is the part of the conscious personality
  that is in touch w/ reality strives to meet the
  demands of the id the superego in ________
  ________________.
• The superego is the part of the personality that
  is the source of _________ counteracts the
  socially undesirable impulses of the id.
• The id represents what a person ______ to do, the
  ego plans what he/she _____ do, the superego
  advocates what he/she _______ do.
• If the id isnt satisfied, a person becomes
  filled w/ _______ longing, but if the superego
  isnt satisfied he/she feels _______ inferior.

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• Defense mechanisms
• Examples p.381-383

• Certain specific means by which the ego
  ________________________ against unpleasant
  impulses or circumstances. People trick
  themselves into believing nothing is wrong
  _____________.
• They can relieve _____ give people time to work
  out problems, but if done too frequently, a
  person wont be able to face solve his/her
  problems _____________.
• Rationalization involves making up a logical or
  rational reason as opposed to the _________ for a
  behavior.
• Repression is pushing ____________________
  memories out of awareness w/o realizing it.
• Denial is _____________________ reality.
• Projection is believing that your own
  unacceptable urges are coming from
  ______________.
• Reaction formation is replacing an unacceptable
  feeling w/ the _________ one putting on a
  front.
• Regression is going back to an earlier
  _________ pattern of behavior.
• Displacement is taking out impulses on a ______
  _____________ target.
• Sublimation is redirecting a forbidden desire
  into a __________________ desire.

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• Freuds contribution to understanding humans

• He recognized that tremendous forces exist in
  human personality are extremely ______
  ______________.
• Made it easier to understand why humans have so
  much ________.
• Its the savage individual coming to terms w/
  _________________.
• The id is the ________ part the superego is
  representative of ______. In a healthy person,
  the __ (the I) is strong enough to handle the
  struggle.
• He was the 1st psychologist to claim that infancy
  childhood are critical times for forming a
  persons ________________.
• Believed a persons personality largely developed
  in the 1st ___yrs of life.

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• Psychoanalytic theories Carl Jung

• For a while he was Freuds closest associate, but
  when he questioned Freuds psychoanalytic theory,
  they _______________.
• Disagreed w/ Freud on 2 major points
• 1. He had a more _________ of humans - believed
  people try to develop their ___________ as well
  as handle their instinctive urges.
• 2. He divided Freuds idea of the unconscious
  into 2 types. The _______ unconscious was
  similar to Freuds unconscious the collective
  unconscious which is the part of the mind that
  contains ________________, urges, memories
  common to all people. These inherited ideas,
  based on the experiences of ones __________ that
  shape our perception of the world are archetypes.

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• Psychoanalytic theories Alfred Adler

• Another former associate of Freud.
• Believed that the driving force in peoples lives
  is a desire to overcome their feelings of
  _____________.
• Described a person who continually tries to
  ______________________ avoid feelings of
  inadequacy as having an inferiority complex (a
  pattern of avoiding feelings of inadequacy rather
  than trying to ______________________).
• Children feel inferior b/c theyre so little
  __________ on adults.
• Emphasized that the way parents ______ their
  children influences their personalities.
• Ideally, children should learn self-reliance/coura
  ge from their ______ generosity/compassion from
  their ________.

End Section 2
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• Behaviorist theories

• Behaviorism is the belief that the proper subject
  matter of psychology is objectively
  ___________________ nothing else.
• Behaviorists believe that as individuals differ
  in their learning experiences, they acquire
  different ____________, thus different
  _____________.
• They look to the environment to see what is
  _____________________.

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• Behaviorist theories B. F. Skinner

• Saw _______ for a general concept of personality
  structure. Instead, he was concerned w/ what
  causes a person to act in a ______________.
• Less concerned w/ understanding behavior than w/
  predicting ____________ it.
• Tried to understand the contingencies of
  reinforcement (the occurrence of rewards or
  punishments following ____________________).
• So what is reinforcing a persons behaviors?
• His approach suggests a hypothesis that can be
  proven ______________.
• We may be completely _________ of the rewards
  that are shaping our behavior.
• Our ________ were not Skinners concern only
  how we behave.
• The point is to find out what is reinforcing our
  behavior then stop it if our behavior is
  undesirable. To change __________, you must
  change the ____________________.

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• Social cognitive theories Albert Bandura

• Social cognitivists believe that personality is
  acquired not only by direct reinforcement of
  behavior but also by _________________, or
  imitation.
• So much of a young childs behavior personality
  is acquired by exposure to specific everyday
  _________.
• Bandura believed that __________________
  __________ by their choice of models.
• The most effective models are those which are
  most _____ to most admired by the observer.
• He also believed that one important concept that
  governs our behavior is our sense of
  self-efficacy (our view of our ability to
  ________).

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• Another social cognitivist (Julian Rotter)
  stressed the importance of our locus of control
  (our beliefs about how much _______ we have over
  certain situations).
• People w/ an ________ locus of control believe
  that they do have control over situations.
  People w/ an ______ locus of control believe that
  their fate is determined by forces _____________
  _________.
• Most tests are fair if a student is prepared.
• - Agree ________ locus
• -Disagree ________ locus
• People w/ an _________ locus of control are
  usually less anxious more content w/ life.

End Section 3
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• Humanistic theories

• Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology
  that emphasizes _________ ________ achievement
  of maximum potential by each unique individual.
• _______ the more pessimistic views of
  psychoanalytical behaviorist beliefs about
  personality.
• Stresses our ability to ______ live by personal
  standards perceptions.
• Founded on the belief that all humans strive for
  self-actualization (the realization of
  ____________________).

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• Abraham Maslow (remember Maslows Hierarchy of
  needs?) studied ___________ people to learn how
  they coped w/ problems created exceptional
  lives. He found that they tended to share
  _______________
• Perceive ________ accurately.
• ________ themselves, others, their environment
  more readily.
• __________-centered instead of self-centered.
• Autonomous ___________.
• Exceptionally spontaneous ________.
• Value privacy solitude.
• Appreciate ________ things.
• Resist conformity.

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• Humanistic theories Carl Rogers

• Rogers developed the __________. He believed
  that people suffer from a conflict b/w what they
  value in themselves what they believe _______
  ________ value in them.
• Also believed that everyone is constantly
  struggling to become more ________ perfect.
  Anything that furthers that end is good.
• Each individual has what Rogers called a self
  (ones experience or image of oneself, ________
  _______________ w/ others) which is acquired by
  observing how others react to us.
• We all try to develop positive regard (viewing
  oneself in a positive light due to positive
  ________ received from interaction w/ others).
  If this doesnt happen, we develop conditions of
  worth (the conditions a _________________ in
  order to regard him/herself positively).
• We may ____________________________ to meet these
  conditions of worth.

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• Cognitive theory

• Based on analysis of our own perceptions,
  thoughts, _________.
• The idea that our thoughts about _______, others,
  our world shape our behavior ____________.
• Emphasis is on the individual his/her plans
  including ____, errors, mistakes, _____
  ____________.
• Has to do w/ the individuals anticipations or
  _____________.

End Section 4
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• Trait theories

• A trait can be described as a tendency to
  ________________ in a way that remains stable
  over time or as any relatively enduring way in
  which one _____________ from another.
• Trait theorists make 2 _______________ about the
  consistency of an individuals behavior in
  different situations
• 1. Every trait applies to __________.
• 2. These descriptions can be _______.
• They want to discover the ________________ of the
  consistency of human behavior.
• The 1st ? of trait theorists is, What behaviors
  ______________?.

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• Trait theories Gordon Allport

• He defined common traits as those that
  _______________ individual traits as those that
  apply more to a ____________.
• He described 3 types of individual traits
• 1. A cardinal trait is a characteristic that is
  so pervasive that the person is almost _________
  w/ that trait (ex. Scrooge).
• 2. A central trait - is a general characteristic
  found in some degree in _____________. It makes
  us __________ in most situations.
• 3. Secondary traits are characteristics seen only
  in ___________________ (such as likes/dislikes).
  They are the least important have a less
  consistent ___________ on us.

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• Trait theories Raymond Cattell

• He identified 46 surface traits (stable
  characteristics that can be observed in
  _________________).
• When looking at what surface traits had in
  common, he identified 16 source traits (stable
  characteristics that can be considered to be at
  the ___________ ______________). P. 400.
• Ex. Relaxed vs. tense, ___________ _______,
  reserved vs. outgoing, etc
• He believed that by measuring these traits,
  psychologists could _______ peoples behavior in
  certain situations.

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• Trait theories Hans Eysenck

• He concluded that there are 2 basic dimensions of
  personality
• 1. _______________________
• 2. _______________________
• Stability refers to the degree of ______ people
  have over their feelings. Stable people are
  relaxed, easygoing, well-adjusted.
• Extroverts are _________, outgoing, active people
  who direct their energies towards other people
  things. Introverts are reserved, withdrawn
  people who are preoccupied w/ their
  _________________ feelings.
• He later added a 3rd dimension _________.
  People at one end are self-centered, hostile,
  ___________. At the other end people are
  socially sensitive, caring, ____________.

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• Trait theories The robust five

• Various trait theories have shown that 5 traits
  ___________________ in different research. They
  are
• 1. ______________
• - talkativeness, energetic, etc
• 2. ______________
• - sympathetic, trusting, etc
• 3. ______________
• - organized, responsible, etc
• 4. ______________________
• - open-minded to new things
• 5. ___________________
• - ability to experience things relatively
  easy w/o getting upset
• Trait theorists assume that traits are
  _____________________.

End Section 5