From Stereotyping to Invisibility: The Psychological Consequences of Using American Indian Mascots

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From Stereotyping to Invisibility The
Psychological Consequences of Using American
Indian Mascots

• Stephanie A. Fryberg
• University of Arizona
• Marysville School District

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From Stereotyping to Invisibility The
Psychological Consequences of Using American
Indian mascots
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Not that I would not, if I could, be both
handsome and fat and well dressed, and a great
athlete, and make a million a year, be a wit, a
bon-vivant, and a lady-killer, as well as a
philosopher, a philanthropist, statesman,
warrior, African explorer, tone-poet and saint.
(James, 1950 1890)
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So the seeker of his truest, strongest, deepest
self must review the list carefully and pick out
the one on which to stake his salvation.
(James, 1950 1890)
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Relevant Research

• Stereotype Threat
• (e.g., Steele Aronson,1995 Steele, 1997
  Spencer, Steele, Quinn, 1997 Steele, Spenser,
  Aronson, 2002)
• Social Representations
• (e.g., Moscovici, 1961 1984 1994 Wagner,
  1987 Jovchelovitch, 1995 Deaux Philogène,
  2001)

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According to Stereotype Threat.

1. Stereotypes exist in the world, not simply inside
   individual minds
2. Stereotypes are reflected and inscribed in the
   practices, policies, and institutions that
   comprise society
3. Stereotypes are enacted in everyday,
   interpersonal behavior
4. Stereotypes are powerful and influential in the
   performance of minorities

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Social Representations

• A system of values, ideas, and practices with a
  twofold function
• 1. Orientation
• 2. Communication

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The American Flag REPRESENTS American ideas of
freedom and independence.
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The American Flag RE-PRESENTS American ideas of
freedom and independence.
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University of Illinois former
mascot/symbol Chief Illiniwek
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For many non-Indians, an Indian must resemble a
historical image, one frozen in the past and in
historical archives--the noble, proud warrior
dancing about and worshipping natures
mysteries
(Trimble, 1987)
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Social Representations of American Indians in
Mainstream Media

• In a content analysis of national newspapers in
  1997 and major films from 1990-2000, relatively
  few (.2) representations of American Indians
  (AI) were found (Fryberg, 2003)
• Representations were largely stereotypic and/or
  negative
• AI were seldom presented as contemporary people
  or in contemporary domains (e.g., as students,
  teachers, doctors)
• In a composite week of primetime TV in 1997, no
  AI characters were identified (Mastro
  Greenberg, 2000).
• In a two week composite of primetime TV in 2002,
  6 out of 1488 (.4) TV characters were identified
  as AI (Mastro Behm-Morawitz, 2005).
• In a composite week of TV commercials in 2000,
  .4 of speaking characters were identified as AI
  (Mastro Stern, 2003).

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Overview

• Examine the psychological consequences of
  American Indian mascots, on American Indian
  students, who are the targets of the
  representations.
• Examine the psychological consequences of
  American Indian mascots on European American
  students, who are the observers of the
  representations.
• Discuss the implications of American Indian
  mascots on intergroup relations, in particular,
  on school and work environments.

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Studies 1 2
What is the impact of American Indian social
representations on the self-esteem (Study 1) and
community efficacy (Study 2) of American Indians?
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Methods
Participants Study 1 72 American Indian (41
females, 31 males) high school students. Mean age
16.4 years. Study 2 152 American Indian (86
females, 60 males) high school student. Mean age
15.7 years.
Procedure Studies 1 2 1. In a study about
media representations, participants were primed
with an American Indian social representation. 2.
Completed a self-esteem (Study 1) or community
efficacy (Study 2) measure.
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Priming Conditions
Condition 2 Cleveland Indians team mascot
Chief Wahoo
Condition 1 Disneys Pocahontas
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Priming Conditions
Condition 4 Control No Prime
Condition 3 Social Problems Negative
Stereotypes

• 50-55 of American Indian high school students
  drop out of high school (Ward, 1994)
• Suicide rates are the highest for any ethnic
  group (Duran Duran, 1995)
• Alcoholism rates of enormous proportions (Oetting
  Bevais, 1987)

Participants completed self-esteem measure
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Study 1Questionnaire

• State Self-Esteem (Heatherton Polivy, 1991)
• I feel that others respect and admire me.
• I feel confident about my abilities.
• I feel pleased with my appearance right now.
• I feel concerned about the impression I am making
  right now.

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Study 2 Questionnaire

• Community Efficacy (Fryberg, 2000)
• People in my community can take action to make
  things better.
• I feel like I can make a difference in my
  community.
• I wish I could have more respect for my community.

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Attitudes About Indian Mascots?
Do you agree or disagree with using Indians as
mascots for sports teams? 1 2 3 4
5 Agree Neutral Disagree
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Respect for American Indians?
For sports teams, do you think European Americans
who dress up as Indians are showing respect to
American Indians? Yes Neutral No
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Mascot is a Caricature
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Study 3
Do American Indian social representations, in
this case American Indian mascots, impact the
number of achievement-related possible selves? Do
all American Indian mascots have the same impact
on American Indians? What types of social
representations of American Indians will increase
wellbeing? Does it matter if the American Indian
mascot represents an American Indian university?
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What are Possible Selves?

• Possible selves are the selves that people would
  like to become or are afraid of becoming
• They are the cognitive manifestations of enduring
  goals, aspirations, motives, fears and threats.

• (Cross Markus, 1994 Markus Nurius, 1986
  Oyserman Markus, 1990 Oyserman Saltz, 1993)

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Social Representations and Achievement- Related
Possible Selves

• Participants
• 172 American Indian (92 females, 80 males)
  students from a predominantly American Indian
  University
• Mean age 23.1 years
• Procedure
• 1. Primed with a social representation of
  American Indians
• 2. Completed a possible selves measure

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Mascot Conditions
Condition 2 Haskell Indian Nations University
mascot Indians
Condition 1 Cleveland Indians team mascot
Chief Wahoo
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Mascot Conditions
Condition 4 Control No prime
Condition 3 University of Illinois mascot
Chief Illiniwek
Participants completed the possible selves measure
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Positive Condition
Condition 5 American Indian College Fund Ad
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Positive S.R. Condition
Condition 5 American Indian College Fund
Ad Have you ever seen a real Indian?
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Study 4
What is the impact of American Indian social
representations on the self-esteem of European
Americans?
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Social Representations and European American
Self-Esteem

• Participants
• 136 European American college students (71
  females and 65 males)
• Mean age 19.8 years
• Procedure
• 1. Primed with a social representation of
  American Indians
• 2. Completed self-esteem measure

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Priming Conditions
Condition 2 Cleveland Indians team mascot
Chief Wahoo
Condition 1 Disneys Pocahontas
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Priming Conditions
Condition 4 Control No Prime
Condition 3 Social Problems Negative
Stereotypes

• 50-55 of American Indian high school students
  drop out of high school (Ward, 1994)
• Suicide rates are the highest for any ethnic
  group (Duran Duran, 1995)
• Alcoholism rates of enormous proportions (Oetting
  Bevais, 1987)

Participants completed self-esteem measure
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American Indians
European Americans
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Studies 5 6
What is the impact of American Indian social
representations on the self-esteem (Study 5) and
likeability (Study 6) of European Americans?
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Methods
Participants Study 5 55 European American male
college students. Mean age 19.0 years (SD
1.0). Study 6 46 European American male college
students. Mean age 20.7 years (SD 2.4).
Procedure Studies 5 6 1. Exposed to an
American Indian social representation on a
t-shirt that was on the research assistant (Study
5) or in a picture. 2. Complete a self-esteem
(Study 5) or likeability (Study 6) measure.
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Priming Conditions
Condition 2 University of Notre Dame mascot
Fighting Irish
Condition 1 Cleveland Indians team mascot
Chief Wahoo
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Priming Conditions
Condition 3 Control No Prime
Participants completed self-esteem (Study 5) or
likeability (Study 6) measure
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Study 6 Questionnaire

• Likeability (BIRG Cialdini De Nicholas, 1989)
• Do you think you would like this person?
• Sometimes we see a little of ourselves in other
  people. Do you feel this way about this person?
• Do you feel that you and this person have any
  common attributes?

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General Discussion

• Social representations can have unintended and
  negative effects.

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We are fighting, CaliforniansFor the Blue and
GoldWe are starting on the warpathFor a scalp
or twoOur blood's up and simply boiling,What
can Stanford do?We are starting on the
warpathFor a scalp or two. So,...  We're goin'
to scalp you, Stanford!We're goin' to scalp you
blue!We'll do it with Your tomahawkWe took from
you. Rah! Rah! Rah! All 'round our belts we'll
hang themTo show all friends who's deadWe're
goin' to carve some blockheadsWhose scalps are
red. We are hotfoot after StanfordCamping on her
trailWith our tomahawk before us,We can never
fail.  Getting ready for the war dance,All our
warriors trueWe are putting on our war
paint,Royal Gold and Blue.
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University of North Dakota Fighting Sioux
Logo
60s 70s 80s 90s
2000
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University of North Dakota Fighting Sioux
t-shirts
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Poster hung outside the University of North
Dakota American Indian Studies Department
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General Discussion

• Social representations can have unintended and
  negative effects.

• In the case of American Indians, social
  representations of their group depressed how they
  felt about themselves (self-esteem), their
  community (community efficacy), and what they
  want to become or are able to become (possible
  selves).
• In the case of European Americans, social
  representations of American Indians increased how
  they felt about themselves (self-esteem) and
  their liking for others who used American Indian
  mascots. European Americans incur no social cost
  for using American Indian mascots.

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Implications

• Teachers, coaches and employers should ensure
  that the existing or relevant social
  representations do not devalue or limit
  individual identity or potential.
• In the case of American Indians, it may be
  important to recognize both what is represented
  and what is not represented in the environment.
  The messages that inform Natives that they do not
  belong or that they cannot be successful in an
  environment may be invisible.
• Creating and developing new and positive social
  representations may be one route to countering
  the effects of negative or limited sets of social
  representations.

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Thank You!

• Collaborators
• Hazel Rose Markus
• Daphna Oyserman
• Jeff Stone
• Joseph Stone
• Research Assistants
• Irene Yeh
• Rabiah Muhammad
• Brad Myles
• Greg Eldridge

University of Arizona Culture Collaboratory