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Title: Ecosystems: Components, Energy Flow, and Matter Cycling


1
Ecosystems Components, Energy Flow, and Matter
Cycling
  • Ch. 4 APES Notes
  • Mrs. Sealy

2
Organisms and Species 
  • Ecology study of connections in nature. 
  • 1. cell basic unit of life in organisms.
  • a. prokaryotic  no organelles, no membrane
    bound nucleus
  • b. eukaryotic nucleus contained in a
    membrane
  •  

3
Organism any form of life. 
  • species groups of organisms that can mate and
    produce fertile offspring (5 to 100 million on
    earth). 

4
Reproduction production of offspring
  • a. Sexual two different parents
  • b. Asexual no mixing of genes, offspring are
    identical

5
Population members of the same species that
occupy a given area.
  • Can Change
  • a. size
  • b. age distribution
  • c.  Density
  • d. genetic composition (genetic diversity)
  •  
  • COMMUNITY populations of all different species
    occupying a given area (plants, animals,
    decomposers, etc).
  •  
  • ECOSYSTEM-a community plus the nonliving factors
    that surround them (plants, animals, soil, water,
    weather, etc.)

6
Biosphere
Biosphere
Ecosystems
Communities
Populations
Organisms
Fig. 4.2, p. 72
7
II. Earths Life Support Systems
  •  
  • BIOSPHERE portion of earth where life exists.
  •   
  • ATMOSPHERE thin envelope of air surrounding the
    planet.
  • 1.      troposphere inner (78 N, 21 O)
  • 2.      stratosphere outer (contains ozone)
  •  
  • HYDROSPHERE earths water.
  • a.       liquid (surface, underground)
  • b.      ice (polar, icebergs, soil)
  • c.       water vapor (atmosphere)
  •  
  • LITHOSPHERE earths land
  • a.       crust (fossil fuels, minerals)
  • b.      upper mantle
  •  

8
Atmosphere
Vegetation and animals
Biosphere
Soil
Crust
Rock
core
Mantle
Lithosphere
Crust (soil and rock)
Crust
Biosphere (Living and dead organisms)
Atmosphere (air)
Hydrosphere (water)
Lithosphere (crust, top of upper mantle)
Fig. 4.6, p. 74
9
Factors Sustaining Life On Earth
  • 1. One way flow of high quality energy
  • a. Through food webs
  • b. Into the environment from organisms
  • c. Back into space as heat
  • 2. Cycling of Matter 
  • 3. Gravity

   
10
Biosphere
Carbon cycle
Phosphorus cycle
Nitrogen cycle
Water cycle
Oxygen cycle
Heat in the environment
Heat
Heat
Heat
Fig. 4.7, p. 75
11
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12
Importance of the Sun
  •  
  • 1. Lights and warms planet
  • 2. Supports Photosynthesis (provides all food)
  • 3. Powers matter cycling
  • 4. Drives climate and weather systems

13
Natural Greenhouse Effect
  • greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon
    dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone trap
    heat in earths atmosphere.

14
Solar radiation
Energy in Energy out
Reflected by atmosphere (34)
Radiated by atmosphere as heat (66)
UV radiation
Lower Stratosphere (ozone layer)
Visible light
Greenhouse effect
Troposphere
Absorbed by ozone
Heat
Absorbed by the earth
Heat radiated by the earth
Earth
Fig. 4.8, p. 75
15
III.  Ecosystem Concepts and Components
  • Biomes large regions characterized by distinct
    climate and specific life forms, especially
    vegetation adapted to it (grasslands, forests,
    deserts, etc.)
  • climate long term patterns of weather.

16
Coastal chaparral and scrub
Desert
Coniferous forest
Coniferous forest
Prairie grassland
Deciduous forest
Appalachian Mountains
Mississippi River Valley
Great Plains
Rocky Mountains
Great American Desert
Sierra Nevada Mountain
Coastal mountain ranges
15,000 ft
10,000 ft
Average annual precipitaion
5,000 ft
100-125 cm (40-50 in.)
75-100 cm (30-40 in.)
50-75 cm (20-30 in.)
25-50 cm (10-20 in.)
below 25 cm (0-10 in.)
Fig. 4.9, p. 76
17
Aquatic Life Zones biomes in water. 
  • a. freshwater life zones (lakes, rivers)
  • b. ocean or marine life zones (estuaries,
    coastlines, coral reefs, deep oceans)
  •  

18
Terrestrial Ecosystems
Aquatic Life Zones
Sunlight Temperature Precipitation Wind
Latitude (distance from equator) Altitude
(distance above sea level) Fire frequency Soil
Light penetration Water currents Dissolved
nutrient concentrations (especially N and P)
Suspended solids
Fig. 4.13, p. 79
19
Land zone
Transition zone
Aquatic zone
ecotone transitional zone between ecosystems,
contains a mixture of species from connecting
ecosystems.
Fig. 4.10, p. 77
20
Components of Ecosystems
  • A.     Biotic living parts of ecosystems
    (plants, animals, and microorganisms) biota.
  •  
  • 1. Producers or Autotrophs (photosynthesis and
    chemosynthesis)
  • 2. Consumers or Heterotrophs
  •  
  • a.  Herbivores
  • b.  Carnivores (secondary or tertiary
    consumers)
  • c.  Omnivores
  • d.  Scavengers

21
e. detritovores feed on dead organisms or
waste. f. Detritus feeders extract nutrients
from partly decomposed organic mater in leaf
litter, plant debris, and animal dung. (crabs,
termites, earthworms) G decomposers recycle
organic matter in ecosystems (bacteria and
fungi)
22
Detritus feeders
Decomposers
Bark beetle engraving
Carpenter ant galleries
Termite and carpenter ant work
Long-horned beetle holes
Dry rot fungus
Wood reduced to powder
Mushroom
Powder broken down by decomposers into plant
nutrients in soil
Time progression
Fig. 4.15, p. 81
23
Sun
Producers (rooted plants)
Producers (phytoplankton)
Primary consumers (zooplankton)
Secondary consumer (fish)
Dissolved chemicals
Tertiary consumer (turtle)
Sediment
Decomposers (bacteria and fungi)
Fig. 4.11, p. 78
24
Sun
Oxygen (O2)
Producer
Carbon dioxide (rabbit)
Secondary consumer (fox)
Primary consumer (rabbit)
Producers
Falling leaves and twigs
Precipitation
Soil decomposers
Water
Soluble mineral nutrients
Fig. 4.12, p. 78
http//magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngexplorer/030
9/quickflicks/
25
3.      Important Biotic Processes
  •  
  • a.     Aerobic Respiration removes oxygen from
    the environment and adds carbon dioxide and
    water.
  • b.      Anaerobic Respiration can add methane
    gas, ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, and hydrogen
    sulfide to the environment.
  • c.      Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide
    and water from the environment and adds oxygen
    and water.
  •  
  •  

26
4.    Abiotic nonliving parts of ecosystems
(water, air, nutrients, solar energy)
  • A.   Range of Tolerance range of physical and
    chemical environments in which a species can
    survive. 
  • a.  Law of Tolerance the abundance of organisms
    is determined by whether physical and chemical
    factors fall within the range of tolerance
  • b. Tolerance Limits limits for conditions beyond
    which no organisms can survive
  •  

27
Fig. 4.14, p. 79
28
Limiting Factor abiotic factors that can
limit or prevent the growth of a population. 
  •       a.       Limiting Factor Principle too
    much or too little of any abiotic factor can
    limit or prevent the growth of a population.
  •  
  • Ex. Desert plants (water), Corn (phosphorus).
  • Ex. Aquatic Ecosystems (temp, light, dissolved
    oxygen, nutrient availability, salinity)
  •  

29
Biodiversity
  • -the different life forms and life sustaining
    processes that can survive the variety of
    conditions currently found on earth. Gives food,
    wood, fibers, energy, raw materials, industrial
    chemicals, and medicines. Provides free
    recycling, purification, natural pest control.
  • 1.      Genetic diversity variety of genes
  • 2.      Species diversity variety of animals
  • 3.      Ecological diversity variety of
    ecosystem
  • 4.      Functional diversity variety of niches

30
IV. Food Webs and Energy Flow In Ecosystems 
  • Food chain- order of feeding levels in an
    ecosystem (plantgtgtcowgtgthumangtgtdecomposer),
    determines how energy and nutrients move from one
    organism to another in an ecosystem.
  • Food Web - interconnected food chains, more
    realistic since consumers generally feed on more
    than one type of organism in an ecosystem.
  • Trophic Levels - feeding levels.
  • A.     first trophic level producers
  • B.     second trophic level herbivores
  • C.     third trophic level carnivores,
    omnivores, scavengers (secondary consumers)
  • D.    fourth trophic level carnivores,
    omnivores, scavengers (tertiary consumers)
  •  

31
Abiotic chemicals (carbon dioxide, oxygen,
nitrogen, minerals)
Solar energy
Producers (plants)
Decomposers (bacteria, fungus)
Consumers (herbivores, carnivores)
Fig. 4.16, p. 82
32
First Trophic Level
Second Trophic Level
Third Trophic Level
Fourth Trophic Level
Producers (plants)
Primary consumers (herbivores)
Tertiary consumers (top carnivores)
Secondary consumers (carnivores)
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
Solar energy
Heat
Heat
Heat
Detritvores (decomposers and detritus feeders)
Fig. 4.18, p. 83
33
Humans
Blue whale
Sperm whale
Killer whale
Elephant seal
Crabeater seal
Leopard seal
Emperor penguin
Adélie penguins
Petrel
Squid
Fish
Carnivorous plankton
Herbivorous zooplankton
Krill
Fig. 4.19, p. 84
Phytoplankton
34
Pyramids of Energy Flow
  •  
  • Biomass the dry weight of all organic matter
    contained in organisms.
  •  
  • Ecological Efficiency the percentage of useable
    energy transferred as biomass from one trophic
    level to the next.
  •  
  • Second Law of Thermodynamics (10 Law) only
    about 10 of useable energy is transferred as
    biomass from on trophic level to the next. The
    rest is lost to the environment as low quality
    heat.
  •  
  • Pyramid of Energy Flow - explain why earth can
    support more people if they eat at lower trophic
    levels (assume 90 energy loss with each transfer
    from one trophic level to the next) figure 4-20

35
Tertiary consumers (human)
Decomposers
10
Secondary consumers (perch)
100
Primary consumers (zooplankton)
1,000
10,000 Usable energy Available at Each tropic
level (in kilocalories)
Producers (phytoplankton)
Fig. 4.20, p. 85
36
  • Pyramid of Biomass represents the storage of
    biomass at various trophic levels in an
    ecosystem. figure 4-22

37
Abandoned Field
Ocean
Fig. 4.22, p. 86
38
  • Pyramid of Numbers represents the estimated
    numbers of organisms at each trophic level..
    figure 4-23

39
Grassland (summer)
Temperate Forest (summer)
Fig. 4.23, p. 86
40
Primary Productivity of Ecosystems
  •  
  • Gross primary productivity the rate at which an
    ecosystems producers convert solar energy into
    chemical energy as biomass in an ecosystem.
  •  
  • High GPP Low GPP
  • Shallow waters near Open ocean
    continents Deserts
  • Forests Polar regions
  • Coral reef 

41
  • Net Primary Prodcutivity what is left of GPP
    after it is used by an ecosystems producers to
    stay alive, grow and reproduce. This is the
    energy or biomass available to consumers in an
    ecosystem.
  •  
  • High NPP Low NPP
  • estuaries Open ocean
  • Swamps and marshes Tundra
  • Tropical rain forests Desert 

42
Fig. 4.24, p. 87
43
Net Primary Productivity
  • The earths net primary productivity is the upper
    limit determining the planets carrying capacity
    for all consumer species.
  •  Our Share of Earths NPP
  • 1)  We use, waste or destroy about 27 of earths
    NPP
  • 2)  We use, waste or destroy about 40 of the
    NPP of terrestrial ecosystems

44
Estuaries
Swamps and marshes
Tropical rain forest
Temperate forest
Northern coniferous forest (taiga)
Savanna
Agricultural land
Woodland and shrubland
Temperate grassland
Lakes and streams
Continental shelf
Open ocean
Tundra (arctic and alpine)
Desert scrub
Extreme desert
800
1,600
2,400
3,200
4,000
4,800
5,600
6,400
7,200
8,000
8,800
9,600
Average net primary productivity (kcal/m2/yr)
Fig. 4.25, p. 88
45
63 Not used by Humans
3 Used Directly
16 Altered by Human Activity
8 Lost or Degrades Land
Fig. 4.26, p. 88
46
VI. Matter Cycling in Ecosystems
  •  
  • A nutrient is any atom, ion, that an organism
    needs to live, grow, or reproduce.
  • 1.      Water
  • 2.      Carbon
  • 3.      Nitrogen
  • 4.      Phosphorus
  • 5.      Sulfur
  • 6.      Calcium

47
  • Biogeochemical Cycles nutrients we need are
    cycles continuously from the nonliving
    environment (air, water, soil, rock) to living
    organisms and then back again.
  • 1. Hydrologic most of the nutrient exists as
    water in some form (water cycle).
  • 2. Atmospheric most of the nutrient exists in
    gaseous form in the atmosphere (Nitrogen and
    carbon cycles)
  • 3. Sedimentary nutrients that do not have a
    gaseous phase, or its gaseous compounds do not
    make up a significant portion of its supply
    (phosphorus and sulfur cycles).
  •  

48
Water Cycle
  •  
  •  
  • Absolute Humidity amount of water vapor found
    in a certain mass in air (g/kg)
  •  
  • Relative Humidity amount of water air can hold
    at a given temperature (), colder air can hold
    less water.
  •  
  • Condensation Nuclei tiny particles on which
    water droplets can collect.
  •  
  • Dew Point temperature at which condensation
    occurs

49
Condensation
Rain clouds
Transpiration from plants
Transpiration
Precipitation
Precipitation
Evaporation
Precipitation to ocean
Evaporation From ocean
Infiltration and Percolation
Surface runoff (rapid)
Groundwater movement (slow)
Ocean storage
Groundwater movement (slow)
Fig. 4.28, p. 90
50
Human Activities and the Hydrologic Cycle
  • 1.      Over-consumption of surface and
    groundwater lead to groundwater depletion and
    saltwater intrusion into groundwater supplies.
  • 2.      Clearing vegetation from land leads to
    increased runoff, decreased infiltration to
    replenish groundwater, increases risk of floods,
    and accelerates soil erosion and landslides.
  • 3.      Adding nutrients and pollutants to water
    diminishes the ability of humans and other
    species to use it and interferes with natural
    purification. 

51
Carbon Cycle (atmospheric cycle)  
diffusion between atmosphere and ocean
combustion of fossil fuels
Carbon dioxide dissolved in ocean water
photosynthesis
aerobic respiration
Marine food webs producers, consumers,
decomposers, detritivores
uplifting over geologic time
incorporation into sediments
death, sedimentation
sedimentation
Marine sediments, including formations with
fossil fuels
Fig. 4.29a, p. 92
52
Atmosphere (mainly carbon dioxide)
volcanic action
combustion of wood (for clearing land or for fuel
photosynthesis
aerobic respiration
Terrestrial rocks
sedimentation
weathering
Land food webs producers, consumers, decomposers,
detritivores
Soil water (dissolved carbon)
Peat, fossil fuels
death, burial, compaction over geologic time
leaching runoff
Fig. 4.29b, p. 93
53
Human impacts on the Carbon Cycle
  • 1.      Clearing trees and other plants that
    absorb carbon dioxide by photosynthesis
  • 2.      Adding large amounts of carbon dioxide to
    the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels and wood.
  •  

54
GASEOUS NITROGEN (N2) IN ATMOSPHERE
NITROGEN FIXATION by industry for agriculture
FOOD WEBS ON LAND
uptake by autotrophs
excretion, death, decomposition
uptake by autotrophs
FERTILIZERS
NO3- IN SOIL
NITROGEN FIXATION bacteria convert to ammonia
(NH3) this dissolves to form ammonium (NH4)
NITROGENOUS WASTES, REMAINS IN SOIL
DENTRIFICATION by bacteria
2. NITRIFICATION bacteria convert NO2- to nitrate
(NO3-)
AMMONIFICATION bacteria, fungi convert the
residues to NH3 , this dissolves to form NH4
NH3, NH4 IN SOIL
1. NITRIFICATION bacteria convert NH4 to nitrate
(NO2-)
NO2- IN SOIL
loss by leaching
loss by leaching
   Nitrogen Cycle (atmospheric cycle)
Fig. 4.30, p. 94
55
Nitrogen Cycle (atmospheric cycle)
  •  
  • Nitrogen Fixation conversion of atmospheric
    nitrogen to ammonia that can be used by plants ( 
  • a.       Cyanobacteria in soil and water
  • b.      rhizobium bacteria in the nodules
    (swellings) of the roots in leguminous plants.
  •  
  • Nitrification conversion of ammonia in soil to
    nitrite ions then to nitrate ions that are easily
    used by plants (aerobic bacteria)
  •  
  • Assimilation absorption of ammonia, ammonium
    ions, and nitrate ions into plant roots from soil
    and water.
  •  
  • Ammonification conversion of nitrogen rich
    organic compounds from organisms into ammonia and
    ammonium ions. 
  • Denitrification conversion of ammonia and
    ammonium ions to nitrate and nitrite ions and
    then back into nitrogen gas and nitrous oxide gas.

56
Human Impact on the Nitrogen Cycle
  • 1)      Adding Nitric Oxide gas to the atmosphere
    when we burn fuel gtgt Acid Precipitation
  •  
  • 2)      Adding Nitrous Oxide Gas to the
    atmosphere through anaerobic bacterias action on
    livestock waste and commercial waste leads to
    ozone depletion and the greenhouse effect.
  •  
  • 3)      Removing nitrogen from earths crust and
    soil through mining activities
  •  
  • 4)      Removing nitrogen from topsoil
  • a.       harvesting nitrogen rich crops
  • b.      irrigating crops
  • c.       burning or clearing grasslands and
    forests before planting crops
  •  
  • 5)      Adding nitrogen to aquatic ecosystems
    depletes dissolved oxygen killing some aerobic
    aquatic organisms
  • a.       agricultural runoff
  • b.      municipal sewage
  •  
  • 6)      Accelerating deposition of acidic
    nitrogen compounds from the atmosphere onto
    terrestrial ecosystems.
  • a.       stimulates growth of weedy plant species
  • b.      crowd out species that cannot assimilate
    nitrogen as efficiently 

57
FERTILIZER
GUANO
agriculture
weathering
uptake by autotrophs
uptake by autotrophs
weathering
LAND FOOD WEBS
DISSOLVED IN OCEAN WATER
MARINE FOOD WEBS
DISSOLVED IN SOILWATER, LAKES, RIVERS
death, decomposition
death, decomposition
settling out
leaching, runoff
sedimentation
ROCKS
MARINE SEDIMENTS
Fig. 4.32, p. 96
58
Phosphorus Cycle (sedimentary cycle)
  •  
  • Human impacts on the Phosphorus Cycle 
  • 1. Mining large quantities of phosphate rock for
    use as
  • a.   inorganic fertilizers
  • b..  detergents
  •  
  • 2. Reducing available phosphate in tropical
    forests through slash and burn agriculture.
  • a.  phosphate is washed away by heavy rains.
  •  
  • 3.  Adding excess phosphate to aquatic ecosystems
    depletes dissolved oxygen and disrupts aquatic
    ecosystems
  • a.   runoff from animal wastes
  • b.   runoff of commercial inorganic fertilizers
    from cropland
  • c.   discharge of municipal sewage
  •  

59
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Oxygen (O2)
Atmosphere
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
  • Sulfur Cycle
  • (atmospheric cycle) (figure 4-33)

Water (H2O)
Dimethl (DMS)
Industries
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Volcanoes and hot springs
Ammonia (NH2)
Oceans
Fog and precipitation (rain, snow)
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4
Animals
Plants
Sulfate salts (SO42-)
Aerobic conditions in soil and water
Decaying organisms
Sulfur (S)
Anaerobic conditions in soil and water
Fig. 4.33, p. 97
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
60
Sulfur Cycle (atmospheric cycle) (figure 4-33)
  •  
  • Human Impacts on the Sulfur Cycle
  •  
  • 1. Burning sulfur containing coal and oil to
    produce electric power
  • a.  produces sulfur dioxidegtgtacid rain
  •  
  • 2.  refining petroleumgtgtsulfur dioxidegtgtacid rain
  •  
  • 3.  smelting to convert sulfur compounds of
    metallic minerals into free metals such as
    copper, lead and zinc.
  • a.  produces sulfur dioxide and trioxidegtgtacid
    rain

61
VII.  Ecologists Methods of Ecosystem Study
  •  
  • Field Research getting into nature to observe
    and measure the structure of ecosystems and what
    happens in them. Most of what we know about
    ecosystems come from field research.

62
Technology of Field Research
  •  
  • 1.      Remote Sensing from aircraft and
    satellites (reflected light, infrared radiation,
    microwave energy)
  • 2.      Geographic Information Systems (GISs)
    information gathered from broad geographic
    regions is stored in spatial databases. Then
    computers analyze and manipulate data to produce
    computerized maps of
  • a.       forest cover and health
  • b.      Water resources
  • c.       air pollution emissions
  • d.      coastal changes
  • e.       relationships between cancer and other
    health effects and pollution
  • f.        changes in global sea temperature
  • g.       map topography of ocean floor

63
Critical nesting site locations
USDA Forrest Service
USDA Forest Service
Private owner 1
Private owner 2
Topography
Habitat type
Forest
Lake
Wetland
Grassland
Real world
Fig. 4.34, p. 98
64
Define objectives
Systems Measurement
Identify and inventory variables
Obtain baseline data on variables
Make statistical analysis of relationships among
variables
Data Analysis
Determine significant interactions
System Modeling
Construct mathematical model describing
interactions among variables
System Simulation
Run the model on a computer, with values entered
for different variables
System Optimization
Evaluate best ways to achieve objectives
Fig. 4.35, p. 98
65
  • System Analysis used to set up observe and make
    measurements of model ecosystems and populations
    under laboratory conditions. Quicker and cheaper
    than similar experiments in the field. Must be
    supported by field research due to unknown
    complexity of natural ecosystems.

66
Solar Capital
Air resources and purification
Climate control
Recycling vital chemicals
Water resources and purification
Renewable energy resources
Soil formation and renewal
Natural Capital
Nonrenewable energy resources
Waste removal and detoxification
Nonrenewable mineral resources
Natural pest and disease control
Potentially renewable matter resources
Biodiversity and gene pool
Fig. 4.36, p. 99
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