FEEDING THROUGH LIFE

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FEEDING THROUGH LIFE
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Role of Nutrients and Energy in the Body

• Carbohydrates and Fats Energy
• Protein Growth and Maintenance
• Vitamins and Mineral Body Processes and
  Structure

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Nutritional Requirements

• When the animal has eaten its energy needs it
  needs to also have consumed its daily
  requirements of all the other nutrients
  (protein, fats, minerals and vitamins) to have a
  complete and balanced diet.
• So diets have to be formulated to be in balance
  with the energy concentration

• All nutrients must be supplied in the correct
  amounts and in balance with each other
• Animals will eat until their energy needs are
  satisfied.

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Maintenance Energy Requirements

• This is the amount of energy used by a moderately
  active adult animal in a thermo-neutral
  environment.
• It includes energy expended for obtaining food
  in amounts necessary to maintain body weight
• but  does not support additional physical
  activity (eg work) or production (growth,
  pregnancy, lactation,) keeping warm or cool,
  repair after trauma, surgery etc

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The Partition of Energy in Food
Gross Energy (GE)
Heat produced when all of the food is burned
Digestible Energy (DE)
Faecal Energy (FE)
Energy lost in the faeces
Urinary energy (UE)
Metabolisable Energy (ME)
Energy lost in urine
Gas Products of Digestion (GPD)
Energy lost as gases from the GIT
Net energy (NE)
Heat Increment (HI)
Energy lost as heat during digestion and
absorption
NE for Maintenance
NE for Production
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Maintenance Energy Requirements

• Animals eat to fulfil energy requirements
• To compare different foods the amount of
  nutrients in them must be expressed in relation
  to energy
• MER( Kcals/day)
• All dogs 270(wt kg.75)
• All cats 1.470(wtkg.75)

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Or More Simply

• Daily Maintenance Requirement
• Dog Water (ml)
• Body Weight
  Energy(kcal)
• (kg) (per kg)
• 3 10
• 6 85
• 10 75
• 25 or more 65
• Cat
• 2.5-5.5 kg inactive 65-70/kg
• active 85/kg
• Or
• Dogs over 2kg MER 2(30wt kg 70)
• Cats over 2kg MER 1.4(30wtkg 70)

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Lifestages

• Life stages when the needs of an animal will
  change
• Growth
• Pregnancy
• Lactation
• Adult Maintenance
• Work
• Geriatric
• Repair/Convalescence

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Lifestages MER needs
Adult maintenance (ie without any production needs) MER 1
Work a day's hard work (eg sheep dog, sled dog) MER 2 - 4
Gestation MER 1 for first 2 trimesters and up to MER 1.5 for the last trimester
Lactation MER 3.0 - 4.0
Post surgery MER 1.25 - 1.35
Trauma MER 1.5
Burns MER 1.7 - 2.0
Inactivity(An inactive animal will have a reduced MER) MER 0.6
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How to Feed Commercial Diets

• Read the label on the packet to check that the
  diet is complete and balanced and what  the
  manufacturers recommendations are
• Select a diet for the life stage of the animal
  (e.g. growth diets for puppies, kittens and
  lactating mothers, senior diets for older
  animals, etc).
• Weigh the animal to calculate how much you need
  to feed
• Gauge the condition score of the animal (how fat
  or thin it is) and use this to monitor the
  response to the amount  being fed, (ie if it gets
  fat you may need to reduce amount being fed,
  choose a different diet type (there's no point
  feeding a high energy diet to a sedentary back
  yard pet that gets no exercise)

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Growing Animals 

• These have greater energy and growth nutrient
  needs (e.g. protein, vitamins and minerals for
  growth of muscle, skin, organs, bones, etc)
• Remember that excesses of nutrients are as
  harmful as deficiencies
• Dogs have a huge range of body weights and grow
  at different rates so how long should we feed it
  as a puppy?
• Pups become adults when they reach 75 - 80 of
  adult weight
• This occurs at different ages according to the
  breed to dog.

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2XMER
1.6X
1.2X
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• Care must be taken not to overfeed the giant
  breeds of dogs whilst they are growing or they
  will develop bone and joint problems due to
  becoming too heavy too quickly for the
  developing  skeleton.
• Growing animals need a calcium to phosphorus
  ratio of 21
• Calcium imbalance or deficiency can cause
  nutritional hyperparathyroidism - irritability,
  reluctance to run and play, lameness, Xrays show
  bone resorption and folding fractures
• Growing animals are best fed a commercial growth
  diet so they are fed nutrients in the correct
  ratio
• Feeding a growth diet once the dog has passed
  the 75 point will result in obesity due to the
  increased concentration of nutrients in the
  growth diets.  

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Calcification of the kidney caused by too much
calcium in the diet on a young dog
Dissolution on bone caused by feeding a diet high
in phosphorus to a young animal
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Great dane pup fed too quickly
Pup 12 weeks after slowing growth rate
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Pregnancy

• Bitches and queens only need increased feeding in
  the last third of pregnancy
• Their requirements in the last third of pregnancy
  only increase by about 50 - 60 (this is the
  stage when the foetuses are actually growing in
  size)
• Due to the increasing size of the uterus
  compressing on the stomach the female is unable
  to eat large quantities of food so it is best to
  feed a highly concentrated food in small frequent
  meals.  

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Lactation

• The nutritional requirements increase up to  300
  - 400 at peak lactation !!
• Due to this HUGE increase she needs concentrated,
  easily digested, nutritious feeds otherwise she
  will not physically be able to eat such a large
  quantity of food!
• Usually fed ad lib so she can snack all day
• It is a good idea to feed her the same growth
  diet onto which the young are to be weaned as it
  contains all the nutrients for growth and bones
  that she needs to put into her milk ! Also
  there tends to be less chance of gut upsets in
  the young due to dietary changes.  

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Working dogs

• These have increased MER requirements and can
  require as much energy as a lactating mother ! 
• Guard Dog-medium work - extra 50 MER
• Sheep or Sled Dog -hard work - extra 300 MER
•   Protein requirements are increased for muscle
  development and repairThe working dog is also an
  adult but one which has more variable and much
  greater energy needs.
• 2-3 times a normal dogs food requirements is
  such a large quantity to eat in one go you can
  either feed more than once a day or use a more
  concentrated food.  There are many  commercial
  foods formulated for active adult dogs.
• Be aware of exercise hypogylcaemia where the
  animal collapses becomes weak after running-
  give small amounts of energy rich foods e.g.
  nutrigel

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Old Dogs and Cats

• Unless the older dog or cat has a medical
  disorder that can be managed by diet there
  usually is no reason to make drastic changes to
  their diet so long as the animal is still looking
  and feeling good on their usual diet.
• They are usually less active so the amount may
  need to be reduced to prevent obesity
• There are senior diets available that have
  changes in the nutrients 

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Feeding Dogs

• It is usually best to avoid late evening meals as
  dogs that eat rapidly may be prone to GDV or they
  may soil their kennels overnight
• Once per day is adequate for average dogs
• Dogs which are unwell or have poor appetites, or
  very old dogs, may benefit from being fed two or
  more times daily with smaller meals
• Very young growing puppies may need four or five
  meals per day, but weaned puppies aged seven
  weeks or more can be fed satisfactorily on two to
  three meals per day if sufficiently concentrated
  foods are given.

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Feeding Cats

• Not small dogs
• Cats prefer to eat many small meals (12-20 meals
  per 24 hours) rather than one or two large ones
• Most cats appear to be able to regulate intake so
  that they do not overeat and become obese when
  food is made available in this way.
• Alternatively, cats may be given free access to
  food that is renewed at least twice daily.

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Feeding Dogs and Cats Under Stress

• Feed dry concentrated feed at night. This will
  allow the dog or cat to pick at food in peace and
  quiet and being dry food does not spoil.
• Try cat food on the small dogs as it is usually
  more readily accepted by them.
• Do not overfeed, most dogs (particularly small)
  will be overwhelmed by large meals and would
  rather pick at titbits.
• Most dogs enjoy a raw meaty bone to chew on
  during the days to help amuse themselves. Some
  cats will also appreciate raw chicken necks
• If a dog hasn't finished its food within 30
  minutes, remove it from the cage, they wont want
  it later and it will only attract vermin
• Tempt fussy eaters with small morsels of either
  raw or cooked beef or chicken and hand feed them.
  
• Warm cat food so it smells more appealing for
  fussy cats.
• The size of the bowl can sometimes put them off
  eating, if it is too deep or has the odour of
  another animal on it, they may not tolerate it.  

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Cat Nutrition

• Cats are naturally 100 carnivorous and cannot
  survive on plant sourced proteins and fats.
• Dogs are naturally omnivorous  so have evolved
  the metabolic processes to use many plant source
  nutrients
• Cats have more essential amino acids and fatty
  acids that must be provided in the diet than do
  dogs.
• Some of these can only be provided in a
  meat-based diet
• Therefore you can not feed cats dog food!

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Nutritional Problems for Cats

• Not enough protein or fat of animal origin.
• Taurine is an amino acid only found in animal
  protein that cats must have in their diet.
  Deficiency causes cardiomyopathy and blindness.
• Arachidonic acid is a fatty acid only found in
  animal fats. It is essential for a healthy cat
• Feeding diets with too much carbohydrate (cheap
  source of energy) can cause obesity or anorexia
  if the carbohydrates are indigestible( from plant
  sources)
• Vitamin E deficiency seen if cat is fed red
  tuna meat exclusively- causes fat inflammation
• Vitamin B1 deficiency -Seen in cats fed on canned
  food deficient in vitamin B1 (thiamine), or fish
  diets with thiaminases (enzymes that destroy the
  vitamin) or foods preserved with sulphur dioxide
• Hypervitaminosis A -"Kangaroo Cat" -Diets with
  too much liver will store too much vitamin A
  which causes bone demineralisation (calcium
  loss), folding fractures, exostoses (bony
  outgrowths) especially at the back of neck, and
  elbows . Cats can only sit like kangaroos

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How to Feed Cats

• Feed a complete and balanced diet usually a mix
  of commercial foods with some raw meat / bones
  for their teeth.
• Make sure the commercial diet uses animal source
  protein and fats.
• Always have fresh water available especially if
  feeding a dry diet.
• Don't feed dog food to cats
• Don't feed
• pure meat diet,
• pure fish,
• pure liver.
• Don't feed cow's milk to adults as they lose the
  enzyme to digest lactose resulting in diarrhoea

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Types of Diets

• Home Made
• these have to be very carefully made to make sure
  they are complete and balanced and that the
  nutrients are not destroyed by cooking. Should be
  based on raw meaty bones.
• Commercial- premium or supermarket brands
• Wet
• Dry
• Moist
• Therapeutic supplied by vets to treat specific
  conditions
• Mixed-combination of all of the above
• In order to provide a balanced diet you must
  first work out the individual needs of an animal
  and then select the foodstuff according to the
  nutrient level they supply

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Canned Food

• 80 - 90 water
• The composition of these range from premium foods
  which contain high proportions of meat and /or
  meat by-products to the lower quality brands
  which contain a low meat content.
• Tinned food tends to be very palatable and is
  good to use to increase acceptance of dry foods
  or for sick and convalescing animals
• The manufacturers use textured soy protein to
  simulate the appearance of meat as the real meat
  is actually a pulverized mush
• All open cans should be stored in the fridge and
  unused ones discarded after 2 days

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Wet Food

• Can include fresh food, processed meat and mash
  or swill for pigs and poultry
• Fresh meat can be frozen for varying lengths of
  time depending on the type of meat but must be
  used within one to two days after thawing.
  Deterioration or spoiling of fresh meat can be
  detected by smell and by sight (meat will change
  colour, becoming darker) the texture of the meat
  will also change and become more spongy as it
  begins to decay.
• DO NOT REFREEZE THAWED MEAT.
• Cooked meat will last longer but should be fed
  within a day or two or cooking
• Raw meat should never be prepared on the same
  surface as other foods

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Dry Food

• The most nutrient dense, 5 - 10 moisture
• Often contain cereal grains (corn, wheat, barley,
  oats), cereal byproducts, (wheat germ), soybean
  products, animal products, milk products, fats
  and oils, mineral and vitamin supplements
• Crude fat often ranges from 5 12 .
• The higher fat levels increase palatability and
  can be achieved by spraying a liquefied fat on
  the surface of the pellets.
• Longest shelf life once packet opened

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Methods of Feeding

• Ad-lib
• Fresh food is always available
• Animal can eat when it wants and as much as it
  wants
• May lead to overeating
• May miss animals that arent eating
• Restricted
• Animal is offered limited amounts and given
  limited time to eat
• The animal should not be able to spill food or
  water. The food needs to be easy to reach if the
  animal is sick

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Storage of Food

• Sacks of food should be stored off the floor on
  slatted platforms
• Open dry food bags should be stored in airtight
  vermin proof containers
• Food area should be cool dry and vermin proof
• Dry food deterioration can be detected by the
  consistency of the biscuit, if it starts to
  crumble or smells then it should be thrown out.
• Cans may appear swollen if contaminated by
  bacteria- do not use
• Overcrowding a cold room or refrigerator prevents
  the air from circulating and the food may not get
  cold air circulating around it

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Commercial diets

• Open formulations- basic nutrients are the same
  but foods used to make them may vary
• Closed formulation- same ingredients used from
  batch to batch
• Canned foods are cooked under pressure- they come
  with a used-by-date
• Dried food may have additives to delay
  deterioration antioxidants, stabilisers etc

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Product Labels

• Should include
• The type of diet
• List of ingredients
• Levels of protein, fat, ash, fibre
• Feeding recommendations
• Date of manufacture and use-by-date
• Manufacturers and distributors name
• Carbohydrates are usually not listed
• The digestible CHO fraction can be calculated as
  follows
• CHO 100-(ptnfatfibreashmoisture)
• on label must be converted to grams of food
  eaten
• It is important to work out the energy density of
  a food to know how much to feed.
• Therefore you need to feed more of a cheap energy
  poor diet than an expensive energy dense diet to
  meet the animals energy requirements

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Energy Levels in Food

• Fat is the most efficient source, yielding 8.46
  kcals of ME per gram of fat
• Carbohydrates yield 3.5 kcals per gram of CHO
• Protein yields 3.5 kcals per gram of protein but
  if used in this manner may prevent the animal
  from growing properly.

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Calculating Metabolisable Energy

• Calculate soluble CHO using formula from slide
  115
• 1 1g of nutrient in 100gms food
• 1g ptn yields 3.5kcals ME
• 1g cho yields 3.5kcals ME
• 1g fat yields 8.46kcals ME
• Total ME in 100gms food nutrient x kcals/g
  kcals/100gm food

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Evaluating the Ration

• Open or closed formulation
• Meat based products are generally of higher than
  cereal based ones.
• Meat product or meat by products in the label
  indicate the ration may vary
• Food colouring is added to make cereals look like
  meat. May look like peas carrots to tempt the
  owner
• Artificial flavours are added to increase
  palatability
• Taurine may be added as an extra to cereal based
  cat foods- meat based foods will have the taurine
  already included

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Weaning Puppies and Kittens

• Puppies and kittens usually start to eat solid
  foods around three weeks of age (this is when
  their teeth start to erupt, their eyes are fully
  open and they have started to become mobile).
•   In the wild, bitches will regurgitate
  semi-digested food for pups to eat. So we need to
  start with a very mushy mix of a soft growth diet
  and gradually decrease the mushiness as the
  pups/kittens grow and are able to chew the food. 
•  Do not feed ad lib as this creates fussy eaters
• Dont feed cow's milk as this causes diarrhoea
  and tends to fill  them up
• Do not supplement a growth diet with calcium as
  this unbalances the Ca phosphorus ratio and will
  cause skeletal problems.

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Feeding Orphan Pups and Kittens

• Commercially prepared formulas are preferred over
  homemade
• Lactose content of cows milk 3x greater than
  bitches and the same as the queens
• Cows and goats milks are inadequate as a
  substitute for rearing puppies since the protein,
  calcium and fat levels are too low.
• Overfeeding cows milk can cause diarrhoea due to
  lactose intolerance

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Feeding Routine

• Dried milk feeds should be reconstituted daily
  and fed at body temperature (38C).
• Food must be given slowly and must not be forced
  into the animal.
• Frequent, small feeds (at least four) should be
  offered throughout the day.
• When feeding from a miniature bottle, the hole in
  the teat may need to be enlarged so that the flow
  is improved and the puppy or kitten does not suck
  in air.
• After feeding the abdomen should be enlarged but
  not over distended
• It is better to underfeed for the first couple of
  days, then gradually increase to the recommended
  amount

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• A heating pad can be used to keep the orphans
  warm
• After the orphans have been fed, the mother would
  normally provoke reflex defaecation and urination
  by licking the ano-genital area.
• This action can be simulated by applying a piece
  of damp cotton wool at the ano-genital area or
  simply by running a dampened forefinger along the
  abdominal wall.
• Between 16-21 days, kittens and pups no longer
  require stimulation to urinate and defaecate and
  from 28 days, when they completely control their
  body temperature, they begin to explore their
  surroundings and become more independent.
• When the puppies and kittens begin to explore
  their surroundings (at 3-4 weeks), a high quality
  puppy or kitten food can be introduced. This can
  be mixed with a milk substitute to begin with and
  then offered separately.

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Hypoglycaemia in young animals

• The major manifestation of inadequate energy
  intake is hypoglycemia.
• Neonates suffer more severely from hypoglycemia
  than adult animals.
• 1 Their glycogen stores are very limited and are
  quickly depleted.
• 2. They have proportionately two-to-four-times
  larger brains (relative to body size) than
  adults, which, since the brain is the priority
  organ to supply with energy, demands a
  proportionately larger portion of the limited
  blood glucose.
• 3. In addition, neonates have lower levels of
  the enzymes necessary to perform gluconeogenesis
  and to use free fatty acids for energy.
• Hypothermia is one manifestation of hypoglycaemia
• The hypothermia affects the gastrointestinal
  tract, reducing absorption of nutrient intake.
• Another central nervous system effect of
  hypoglycemia is poor muscle tone, seen in a weak
  suck reflex, and contributing to respiratory
  difficulty.

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Nap Time