Welcome to Anatomy

1
Welcome to Anatomy Physiology II

• Who am I?
• Greg Erianne, Ph.D.
• Office Hours See Syllabus, Rm. E-419
• E-mail
• NVCC gerianne_at_nvcc.commnet.edu
• Home gerianne_at_optonline.net
• Tel [phone] (voice mail)
• PLEASE BE SURE TO FILL OUT ANY ONE OF THE SIGN-IN
  SHEETS ON FRONT DESK!!
• If you were in my class last semester, just
  enter your name and any information that has
  changed (or no change).

2
Overview of Topic 1

• Course and Publisher Web sites
• Course Description/Textbook/Lab Book
• Course Objectives and Syllabus Review
• Blueprint for success/Study strategy
• Overview of blood
• Blood volume and composition
• Formed elements of blood
• Blood plasma
• Hemostasis
• Blood groups and transfusions

3
Course Web Sites

• Our Web sites for this class are located at
• http//www.gserianne.com/science/GerianneBio212
  (Main)
• Announcements (VERY IMPORTANT TO LOOK AT
  FREQUENTLY!)
• Syllabus and all lecture/lab schedules
• Lecture and Lab slides used in class (ppt and pdf
  formats)
• Supplementary online materials for Lecture and
  Lab
• Lecture and Lab Exam Study Guides
• Links to many other sites including McGraw Hill
  Publishers Web site
• Extra credit assignments
• http//my.commnet.edu (BB Vista Secondary)
• You will need your student ID and password for
  the Blackboard (BB) Vista site
• This BB Vista site will be used ONLY for self
  tests and grades
• http//masteringaandp.com (from Pearson Science)
• You will need the course ID and have to register
  if you havent been to this site before
• Lots of resources to use for AP II

4
Outline of Course/Requirements

• Course Description
• Lecture / discussion format
• Lectures may not follow the order of Martinis
  Visual Anatomy and Physiology, 12th edition
  please check your syllabus!
• Figures used for class
• Laboratory
• Holes Laboratory Manual, 12th edition
• Reading assignments for lab should be done BEFORE
  you come to lab

5
Major objectives of this course

• In general, you will
• Master the objectives listed in the syllabus
• Develop a further mastery of scientific/biomedical
  terminology
• Further develop your ability to think logically
  and critically
• Lets review the syllabus and handouts

6
Blueprint for Success

• Most importantly
• Skim your textbook BEFORE lecture and make notes
• Take notes in your own words and become mentally
  involved during lecture review/rewrite your
  notes after lecture
• Ask questions if you dont understand
• Continually review previously learned material
• Use all the study aids available to you
• Before taking the exam, you should be able to
  take a BLANK study guide and answer all the
  questions WITHOUT YOUR NOTES!!!!
• See the Suggested Study Method on Web
  gserianne.com Web site Please review this!!!

7
Martinis Visual Anatomy and Physiology First
Edition Martini w Ober
Chapter 17 Blood Blood Vessels Lecture 1
8
Overview of Blood (Hem-)
Blood is what type of tissue?
Connective tissue.

• Functions
• transports vital substances (O2, waste)
• maintains stability of interstitial fluid
• distributes heat
• hemostasis
• prevents infection

• Blood Cells (formed elements)
• form in red bone marrow
• red blood cells
• white blood cells
• platelets (cell fragments)

• Plasma (liquid portion - matrix)
• contains dissolved substances
• mostly water and proteins

• amount of blood varies with
• body size
• changes in fluid volume
• changes in electrolyte concentration
• amount of adipose tissue
• about 7-8 of body weight
• About 5.0 liters of blood in adult

9
Blood Composition
Hematocrit (HCT) Percentage of red cells in
blood by volume. Also called Packed Cell Volume
(PCV). Usually about 45
What would happen to the hematocrit if someone
was dehyrated and lost plasma volume?
Figure from Saladin, Anatomy Physiology,
McGraw Hill, 2007
10
Formed Elements of the Blood
45 of blood
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
11
Origin of Blood Cells
All formed elements of blood arise from a common
hematopoietic pluripotent stem cell (a
hemocytoblast) in the red bone marrow
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
12
Red Blood Cells

• erythrocytes
• biconcave (? surface area)
• one-third hemoglobin ( 280 million Hb
  molecules per RBC)
• oxyhemoglobin
• deoxyhemoglobin
• can readily squeeze through capillaries
• lack nuclei and mitochondria

Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
13
Hemoglobin
General structure - Four polypeptides chains
- A porphyrin - An iron atom
Heme
Figure From Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
14
Red Blood Cell Count

• number of RBCs in a cubic millimeter (mm3) of
  blood. (1 mm3 1 microliter, µl)

• 4,600,000 6,200,000 in males

• 4,200,000 5,400,000 in adult females

• 4,500,000 5,100,000 in children

Average is about 5 x 106 RBCs / µl

• Number of RBCs reflects bloods oxygen carrying
  capacity

15
Red Blood Cell Production

• low blood oxygen causes kidneys and liver to
  release erythropoietin which stimulates RBC
  production (up to 30 million per second under
  maximum EPO stimulation!)
• Erythropoiesis

• vitamin B12, folic acid and iron necessary for
  RBC production

Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
16
Blood Viscosity and Osmolarity

• Viscosity (thickness)
• Resistance to flow of blood
• Whole blood is about 5x as viscous as water
• Changes in viscosity can put strain on the heart
• Erythrocytosis (polycythemia) ? viscosity
• Osmolarity
• Due to NUMBER of particles dissolved, not the
  type
• Na, proteins, erythrocytes
• Osmolarity determines fluid flow between blood
  and tissues

17
Red Blood Cell Turnover
The average life span of an RBC is about 120 days
(4 months)
Iron is carried in the blood by transferrin to
red bone marrow, liver
Figure From Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
Porphyrin from worn out RBCs is converted into
biliverdin and bilirubin
18
Types of Anemia
Anemia deficiency of RBCs or Hb in RBCs
reduces O2-carrying capacity of blood

• aplastic anemia
• bone marrow damaged
• toxic chemicals
• radiation

• iron deficiency anemia
• hemoglobin deficient
• lack of iron

• pernicious anemia
• excess of immature RBCs
• inability to absorb B12

• hemolytic anemia
• RBCs destroyed
• toxic chemicals

• thalassemia
• hemoglobin deficient
• RBCs short-lived
• defective gene (? or ?-chain)

• sickle cell anemia
• abnormal shape of RBCs
• defective gene (?-chain)

19
White Blood Cells

• leukocytes
• protect against disease
• interleukins and colony-stimulating factors
  stimulate development in red bone marrow

• granulocytes
• neutrophils
• eosinophils
• basophils

• agranulocytes
• lymphocytes
• monocytes

phils are filled with granules!
20
Neutrophils

• light blue granules in acid-base stain
• lobed nucleus
• other names
• segs
• polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMNs)
• bands (young neutrophils)
• first to arrive at infections
• phagocytic
• 55 - 65 of leukocytes (most numerous type of
  WBC)
• elevated in bacterial infections

Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
21
Basophils
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010

• deep blue granules from basic stain
• release histamine and heparin in allergic
  reactions (similar to mast cells)
• less than 1 of leukocytes

22
Eosinophils
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010

• deep red granules in acid stain
• bilobed nucleus
• participate in allergic reactions
• defend against parasitic worm infestations
• 1 - 3 of leukocytes
• elevated in worm infestations and allergic
  reactions, collagen diseases, diseases of spleen

23
Monocytes
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010

• largest blood cell
• agranulocyte
• kidney-shaped or oval nuclei
• leave bloodstream to become macrophages
• 3 - 9 of leukocytes
• elevated in typhoid fever, malaria,
  tuberculosis, viral infections, inflammation

24
Lymphocytes

• about the size of RBC
• agranulocytic
• large spherical nuclei
• thin rims of cytoplasm
• T cells
• B cells
• NK cells
• important in immunity
• produce antibodies
• 25 - 33 of leukocytes
• decreased T Cells in AIDS

Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
25
Diapedesis

• Diapedesis - leukocytes squeeze through
  capillary walls to enter tissue space outside the
  blood vessel

Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
26
White Blood Cell Counts

• number of WBCs per mm3 of blood
• 5,000 10,000 per mm3 (or µl) of blood

• leukopenia (-penia deficiency of cell number)
• low WBC count
• typhoid fever, flu, measles, mumps, chicken pox,
  AIDS
• leukocytosis (-cytosis increase in cell
  number)
• high WBC count
• acute infections, vigorous exercise, great loss
  of body fluids

• differential WBC count
• lists percentages of types of leukocytes
• may change in particular diseases

27
Blood Platelets

• called thrombocytes when nucleated (in birds)
• cell fragments of megakaryocytes
• membrane bound
• 150,000 500,000 per mm3 of blood (average
  350,000 per µl)
• help control blood loss from broken vessels

28
Blood Plasma

• straw colored
• liquid portion of blood
• 55 of blood

Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
29
Plasma Proteins

• Albumins
• most numerous plasma proteins (55)
• transport proteins
• originate in liver
• help maintain osmotic pressure of blood

• Alpha and Beta Globulins
• originate in liver
• transport lipids and fat-soluble vitamins

• Gamma Globulins
• originate in lymphatic tissues (plasma cells)
• constitute the antibodies of immunity

• Fibrinogen
• originates in liver
• plays key role in blood coagulation

30
Gases and Nutrients

• Gases
• oxygen
• carbon dioxide
• nitrogen

• Nutrients
• amino acids
• simple sugars
• nucleotides
• lipids
• lipoproteins

31
Nonprotein Nitrogenous (NPN) Substances

• molecules containing nitrogen that are not
  proteins
• urea product of protein catabolism about 50
  of NPN substances ( BUN blood urea nitrogen
  one indicator of kidney function)
• uric acid product of nucleic acid catabolism
• amino acids product of protein catabolism
• creatine stores phosphate groups (energy)
• creatinine product of creatine metabolism

32
Plasma Electrolytes

• sodium
• potassium
• calcium
• magnesium
• chloride
• bicarbonate
• phosphate
• sulfate

33
Hemostasis

• cessation of bleeding

• Platelet Plug Formation
• triggered by exposure of platelets to collagen
• platelets adhere to rough surface to form a plug

• Blood Vessel Spasm
• triggered by pain receptors, platelet/endothelial
  cell release of various substances
• smooth muscle in vessel contracts (vascular
  spasm)

• Blood Coagulation
• triggered by platelets, cellular damage and
  blood contact with foreign surfaces
• blood clot forms

1. Vascular phase
3. Coagulation phase
2. Platelet phase
Hemostasis
34
Platelet Plug Formation
Substances released by platelets - ADP
(platelet activator) - thromboxane A2 and
serotonin (vessel constriction) - clotting
factors - Ca2 (clotting) - PDGF
Example of positive feedback
Figure from Holes Human AP, 12th edition, 2010
35
Blood Coagulation

• Three cascades
• Instrinsic
• Extrinsic
• Common

Coagulation is an example of positive feedback
15 sec.
3-6 min.
Figure from Martini, Anatomy Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
36
Blood Coagulation

• Extrinsic Clotting Mechanism (shorter, faster)
• chemical outside of blood triggers blood
  coagulation
• triggered by tissue factor or thromboplastin
  (not found in blood, thus its extrinsic and
  produced by damaged tissue)

• Intrinsic Clotting Mechanism (longer, slower)
• chemical inside blood triggers blood coagulation
• activators are in direct contact with blood or
  contained within the blood triggered by
  Hageman factor (XII found inside blood)
• triggered when blood contacts a foreign
  surface, e.g., collagen fibers, glass tube

Both pathways are activated after blood vessel
damage
37
Blood Clots

• After forming, blood clot retracts (60) and
  pulls the edges of a broken vessel together

• Platelet-derived growth factor stimulates smooth
  muscle cells and fibroblasts to repair damaged
  blood vessels

• Thrombus abnormal blood clot
• Embolus blood clot moving through blood

Serum is the fluid expressed from a clot, i.e.,
the plasma minus clotting factors
38
Prevention of Coagulation

• The smooth lining (endothelium) of blood vessels
  discourages the accumulation of platelets

• Prostacyclin released by endothelial cells
  (aspirin)
• Some cells secrete heparin (an anticoagulant)

• As a clot forms, fibrin absorbs thrombin and
  prevents the reaction from spreading

• Antithrombin (in plasma) interferes with the
  action of excess thrombin (activated by heparin)

• Plasmin digests blood clots (generated from
  plasminogen via the action of a plasma enzyme,
  kallikrein)

39
Review
Major Blood Cell Type red blood cell white blood cell platelet
Scientific Name erythrocyte leukocyte thrombocyte
Circulating Concentration/ mm3 blood 4-6 million/ mm3 blood 5-10,000/ mm3 blood 150,000-500,000/ mm3 blood
General Function transportation of oxygen fight infection blood clotting
Key Characteristic Biconcave disks, lack nucleus and mitochondria, contain Hb, erythropoietin Granulocytes and agranulocytes, some are phagocytic Fragments of giant megakaryocyte
40
Review
Specific WBC Function/ Event of Increase? Differential Morphological feature
Neutrophil general phagocytosis acute bacterial infections 54-62 Light purple granules, multilobed nucleus
Eosinophil kills parasites involved in inflammation and allergic reactions 1-3 Dark red granules, bilobed nucleus
Basophil Inflammatory reactions releases heparin (natural anticoagulant) and histamine (inflammation) less than 1 Deep blue granules, bilobed nucleus usually obscured by granules
Monocyte phagocytosis of large particles typhoid, malaria, mononucleosis 3-9 Large, kidney-shaped or oval nucleus
Lymphocyte produce antibodies/immunity viral infections, tissue rejection, tumors, TB, whooping cough 25-33 Slightly larger than RBCs, large nucleus with thin rim of cytoplasm