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Title: Chapter 11: Human Development Across the Life Span


1
Chapter 11 Human Development Across the Life Span
2
Progress Before BirthPrenatal Development
  • 3 phases
  • germinal stage first 2 weeks
  • conception, implantation, formation of placenta
  • placenta is a structure that allows oxygen and
    nutrients to pass into the fetus from the
    mothers bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass
    out to the mother

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Progress Before BirthPrenatal Development
  • embryonic stage 2 weeks 2 months
  • formation of vital organs and systems (such as
    the heart, spine, and brain emerge)
  • time of great vulnerability

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Progress Before BirthPrenatal Development
  • fetal stage 2 months birth
  • bodily growth continues, movement capability
    begins, brain cells multiply
  • age of viability between 22 and 26 weeks, the
    baby could survive if born prematurely
  • the muscles and bones begin to form
  • sex organs developing in the 3rd month

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Figure 11.1 Overview of fetal development
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Environmental Factorsand Prenatal Development
  • Maternal nutrition
  • malnutrition has been shown to have negative
    effects for many years after birth. Research
    links maternal malnutrition to vulnerability,
    schizophrenia, and other psychiatric disorders in
    adolescence and early adulthood

11
Environmental Factorsand Prenatal Development
  • Maternal drug use
  • Tobacco, alcohol, prescription, and recreational
    drugs linked to birth defects
  • Fetal alcohol syndrome one of the leading causes
    of mental retardation
  • Problems include microcephaly, heart defects,
    irritability, hyperactivity, and delayed mental
    and motor development
  • also related to increased incidence of
    depression, suicide, and criminal behavior in
    adulthood

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Environmental Factorsand Prenatal Development
  • Maternal illness
  • Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS,
    severe influenza
  • the nature of the damage depends on when the
    mother contracts the illness
  • Prenatal health care associated with higher
    survival rates and reduced prematurity

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The Childhood Years Motor Development
  • Motor development refers to the progression of
    muscular coordination required for physical
    activities
  • Basic Principles
  • Cephalocaudal trend head to foot
  • Proximodistal trend center-outward

15
The Childhood Years Motor Development
  • Motor development depends in part on physical
    growth, as well as on the process of maturation,
    and the infants ongoing exploration of the
    world.
  • Maturation gradual unfolding of genetic
    blueprint
  • Developmental norms age at which individuals
    display various behaviors and abilities
  • median age (useful benchmarks only)
  • Cultural variations in motor development
    indicate the importance of experience on the
    development of motor skills

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Easy and Difficult BabiesDifferences in
Temperament
  • Longitudinal studies observe one group of
    participants repeatedly over time
  • more sensitive to developmental influences
  • cross-sectional designs compare groups of
    participants of differing age at a single point
    in time
  • easier, quicker, and cheaper
  • Temperament an individuals characteristic mood,
    activity level, and emotional reactivity

18
Easy and Difficult BabiesDifferences in
Temperament
  • Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970)
  • temperamental individuality is established by
    about 2-3 months of age, it was stable over time
  • 3 basic temperamental styles
  • easy 40 happy, regular in sleep and eating,
    adaptable, and not readily upset
  • slow-to-warm-up 15 happy, regular in sleep
    and eating, adaptable, and not readily upset,
    with moderate reactivity
  • difficult 10 glum, erratic in sleep and
    eating, resistant to change, and relatively
    irritable
  • mixed 35

19
Easy and Difficult BabiesDifferences in
Temperament
  • Thomas and colleagues used parent reports, Jerome
    Kagan and colleagues relied on direct
    observations
  • Kagan Snidman (1991)
  • Inhibited shyness, timidity, and wariness of the
    unfamiliar
  • uninhibited temperament less restraint with
    regard to the unfamiliar and little trepidation
  • inhibited 15 - 20
  • uninhibited 25 - 30
  • stable over time, genetically based

20
Figure 11.6 Longitudinal versus cross-sectional
research
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Early Emotional Development Attachment
  • Harry Harlow
  • Made 2 monkeys
  • Wanted to see if feeding was the key determinant
    in infant attachment
  • Found that the real monkeys went to the
    comfortable monkey when scared
  • Also found that babies are programmed to emit
    behavior that triggers an affectionate,
    protective response from adults

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Early Emotional Development Attachment
  • Attachment refers to the close, emotional bonds
    of affection that develop between infants and
    their caregivers
  • Separation anxiety emotional distress seen in
    many infants when they are separated from people
    with whom they have formed an attachment
  • Ainsworth (1979)
  • The strange situation and patterns of attachment
  • Secure playing and exploring comfortably when
    mom is present, becoming visibly upset when she
    leaves, and calming quickly upon her return.
  • Anxious-ambivalent show anxiety even when mom is
    near and protest excessively when she leaves, but
    are not particularly comforted when she returns
  • Avoidant some babies sought little contact with
    their mothers and were not distressed when she
    left

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Early Emotional Development Attachment
  • Developing secure attachment
  • Bonding at birth first few hours after birth
    does not appear to be crucial to secure
    attachment
  • Daycare recent research by the NICHD indicates
    that day care is not harmful to childrens
    attachment relationships, and there is evidence
    that there may be beneficial effects of day care
    on social development in children from deprived
    backgrounds.
  • Cultural factors vary across cultures

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Early Emotional Development Attachment
  • Evolutionary perspectives on attachment
  • John Bowlby,assumed attachment to be a function
    of natural selection, with infants programmed to
    emit behaviors that trigger affectionate,
    protective responses in adults.
  • Jay Belsky (1999) asserts that children have been
    programmed by evolution to respond to sensitive
    or insensitive care with different attachment
    patterns.

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Stage Theories of Development Personality
  • Stage theories, three components
  • progress through stages in order
  • progress through stages related to age
  • major discontinuities in development

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Figure 11.10 Stage theories of development
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Stage Theories of Development Personality
  • Erik Erikson (1963)
  • Eight stages spanning the lifespan
  • Psychosocial crises determining balance between
    opposing polarities in personality
  • there is a specific psychosocial crisis during
    each stage, the outcome of which determines the
    balance between opposing polarities in personality

30
Figure 11.11 Eriksons stage theory
31
Stage Theories Cognitive Development
  • Jean Piaget (1920s-1980s) asserting that
    interaction with the environment and maturation
    gradually alter the way children think
  • Assimilation interpreting new experiences in
    terms of existing mental structures without
    changing them
  • Accommodation changing existing mental
    structures to explain new experiences
  • IPOD example

32
Stage Theories Cognitive Development
  • 4 stages and major milestones
  • Sensorimotor
  • Object permanence the recognition that objects
    continue to exist even when they are no longer
    visible.
  • (birth to 2 years)
  • Preoperational
  • Centration tendency to focus on just one feature
    of a problem
  • Egocentrism the limited ability to share
    anothers viewpoint
  • Irreversibility cant reverse an action
  • (2-7 years)

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Stage Theories Cognitive Development
  • Concrete Operational
  • Decentration able to focus on more than one
    feature of a problem simultaneously
  • Reversibility mentally undoing an action
  • These new cognitive skills lead to conservation,
    or recognizing that amount of a substance does
    not change just because appearance is changed
  • 7-11 years-old
  • Formal Operational
  • marked by the ability to apply operations to
    abstract concepts such as justice, love, and free
    will
  • 11- adulthood

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Figure 11.12 Piagets stage theory
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Figure 11.13 Piagets conservation task
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Figure 11.14 The gradual mastery of conservation
37
Weaknesses of Piaget
  • 1) might have underestimated the pace at which
    children progress
  • 2) Did not see individual development there can
    be a mixing of stages as a child progresses (no
    clearly defined stage)
  • 3) Further research has shown that the sequence
    of stages is largely correct, but the timetable
    at which you progress varies across cultures
    (underestimated culture)

38
Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory
  • Vygotsky (Russian 1920-30s) died early in
    career
  • Emphasized how childrens cognitive abilities are
    fueled by social interactions (parents, teachers,
    peers) who can provide guidance
  • Both good and bad
  • Argued the mastery of language plays a central
    role in fostering cognitive development

39
Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory
  • Cont.
  • New Ideas
  • Zone of Proximal Development the difference
    between what a person can accomplish alone and
    with a more skilled mentor
  • Scaffolding adjusting the difficulty of a task
    as the learner progresses
  • Private Speech children talk to themselves to
    work out strategies (Piaget discarded as
    egocentric), as the children age the speech
    becomes internal

40
Are some Cognitive Abilities Innate?
  • Research was done on infants
  • Used Habituation a gradual reduction of a
    response after an event is presented repeatedly
  • Dishabituation a new stimulus elicits an
    increase in the strength of a habituated response
  • Ex show infants same picture over and over
    (heart rate and respiration decrease)- Hab.
  • new picture introduced (heart rate- respiration
    increase) Dishab.

41
Are some Cognitive Abilities Innate?
  • Results
  • 3-4 mos.
  • Children understand that objects have solid
    boundaries
  • take continuous paths
  • Objects cant pass through each other or opening
    smaller than the objects
  • Things roll down a slope, not up
  • 9-12 Mos. Children can group things into
    categories

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Are some Cognitive Abilities Innate?
  • But can they add and subtract?
  • Featured Study
  • What were the results?

43
Featured Study Result
  • Researcher said the results pointed to the fact
    that 9 mos. Olds could add and subtract
  • Other psychologists argue that the findings do
    not show mathematic ability, but the ability to
    track groups
  • So dont feel bad if math is hard

44
The Development of Moral Reasoning
  • Kohlberg (1976)
  • based on subjects responses to presented moral
    dilemmas
  • interested in a persons reasoning, not
    necessarily their answer
  • Moral dilemmas
  • Measured nature and progression of moral reasoning

45
The Development of Moral Reasoning
  • 3 levels, each with 2 sublevels
  • Preconventional Children think in terms of
    external authority
  • Conventional rules are necessary for maintaining
    social order
  • Postconventional rules are worked out as a
    personal code of ethics

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Figure 11.17 Kohlbergs stage theory
47
Adolescence Physiological Changes
  • Pubescence the two-year span preceding puberty
    during which the changes leading to physical and
    sexual maturity take place
  • Secondary sex characteristics physical features
    that distinguish one sex from the other but that
    are not essential for reproduction

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Adolescence Physiological Changes
  • Puberty the stage during which sexual functions
    reach maturity, marking the beginning of
    adolescence
  • Primary sex characteristics
  • Menarche the first occurrence of menstruation
  • Sperm production spermarche

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Adolescence Physiological Changes
  • Maturation early vs. late
  • Puberty is occurring at younger ages
  • explanations for this trend include improvements
    in nutrition and medical care maybe family
    relationships
  • Sex differences in effects of early maturation
  • early maturing girls and late maturing boys
    having greater risk for psychological problems
    and social difficulties
  • 10-15 for girls is typical, 11-16 for boys

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Figure 11.19 Physical development at puberty
51
Adolescence Neural Changes
  • Increasing myelinization
  • white matter increases
  • Synaptic pruning
  • The brain becomes more efficient
  • Changes in prefrontal cortex
  • last area of the brain to mature fully. Some
    researchers have suggested that this is connected
    with the increase in risky behaviors during
    adolescence.
  • Controls planning, organization, and emotional
    control

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The Search for Identity
  • Erik Erikson (1968) Identity vs. Confusion
  • Key challenge - forming a sense of identity
  • James Marcia (1988)
  • presence or absence of crisis and commitment
    during the identity formation stage can combine
    in various ways to produce four different
    identity statuses
  • Focused on adolescence, but said these can occur
    at anytime
  • They progress through the following order of
    maturity

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The Search for Identity
  • 4 identity statuses (Marcia)
  • Identity Diffusion is a state of lack of
    direction and apathy
  • Social and psychological problems
  • Foreclosure premature commitment to a role
    prescribed by ones parents
  • Anxiety, conformity, and not open to new ideas

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The Search for Identity
  • Moratorium involves delaying commitment and
    engaging in experimentation with different roles
  • Self-doubt and confusion
  • Identity Achievement arriving at a sense of self
    and direction after some consideration of
    alternative possibilities
  • Higher self-esteem, security, conscientiousness,
    achievement motivation, intimacy

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The Expanse of Adulthood
  • Personality development marked by both stability
    and change
  • Extraversion, neuroticism, and openness to
    experience decline
  • Agreeableness and conscientiousness increase
  • Adults who move successfully through Eriksons
    stages develop intimacy, generativity, and
    integrity.

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The Expanse of Adulthood
  • Social development
  • Marriage marital satisfaction indicate that when
    spouses have differing role expectations,
    adjustment to marriage is more difficult.
    Research also shows highest rates of marital
    satisfaction at the beginning and end of the
    family cycle

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The Expanse of Adulthood
  • Parenthood adjustment to parenthood proceeds
    more smoothly if unrealistic expectations are not
    held
  • parent-adolescent relations and the adjustment
    difficulties that parents may have when children
    leave home (empty nest syndrome) may not be as
    stressful as once believed

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The Expanse of Adulthood
  • Erikson View of Adulthood
  • Intimacy vs. Isolation
  • Early adulthood empathy and openess vs
    shrewdness and manipulativeness
  • Generativity vs. Self-absorption
  • Middle adulthood a concern for future
    generations vs. self-indulgent concerns
  • Integrity vs. Despair
  • Late adulthood has my life meant anything

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The Expanse of Adulthood
  • Career development
  • tends to proceed through stages of exploration of
    careers, establishment of a career, maintenance,
    and decline.
  • 40s most productive decade
  • Physical changes
  • changes in appearance, neuron loss, sensory loss,
    and hormonal changes.
  • Research indicates that menopause is not as
    problematic as once thought.

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The Expanse of Adulthood
  • Alzheimers Disease

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The Expanse of Adulthood
  • Cognitive changes
  • general mental ability remains fairly stable,
    with small declines in IQ after age 60
  • Fluid intelligence is more likely to decline with
    age
  • crystallized intelligence remains stable or
    increases
  • Mental speed declines in late adulthood, and
    memory losses have been reported in many studies.
    These are moderate and variable
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