High North in world politics, and changing geopolitics of the North

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High North in world politics, and changing
geopolitics of the North

• International Summer School in Karelia 2010
• 10-16, May 2010
• Dr. Lassi Heininen
• University of Lapland / Northern Research Forum

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A perspective of the future ?
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Two main discourses in the 2010s

• Stability and peacefulness based on
  institutionalized cooperation across borders by
  arctic states and non-states actors
• vs.
• Potential race of natural resources and
  emerging conflicts, and consequently, an emphasis
  of state sovereignty and national interests (by
  littoral states)

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Third discourse

• High North in world politics five viewpoints
• Geopolitical point of view
• Scientific point of view
• Diversity of life
• Viewpoint of stability
• Viewpoint of innovations

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Traditional ways to define

• Geographically The Arctic Ocean with sub-seas
  and two rim-lands with archipelagos
• Demographically 4 - 9 million people both
  major nations and indigenous peoples
• Politically 1 Eight arctic states Canada,
  Denmark through Greenland and the Faroes,
  Finland, Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation,
  Sweden and the USA through Alaska
• Politically 2 Five littoral states of the Arctic
  Ocean Canada, Denmark-Greenland, Norway, Russia
  and USA
• Juristically Divided by the national borders of
  these states except the Faroes with Home Rule
  and Greenland as self-government, and Svalbard
  under the auspices of the international Treaty on
  Svalbard and governed by Norway
• Legally Exclusive Economic Zones based on
  UNCLOS, and few disputes on maritime borders

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A need to redefine?

• Used Geo-names over the northernmost regions of
  the globe
• - The Arctic
• - The circumpolar North
• - The High North
• --- The region is consisted of 8 states ( A8),
  or 5 states (A5), or what?

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Schools of Geopolitics

• Classical geopolitics physical space and power
• New geopolitics economics, actors, identities
• Critical geopolitics politicization of physical
  space, importance of social space, interrelation
  between knowledge and power

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Implementations of the schools

• Classical geopolitics the resource models, the
  technology models
• New geopolitics Indigenous peoples, the Northern
  dimension
• Critical geopolitics Arctic (internal /
  external) images, the uncertainty related to
  climate change

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Changing geopolitical position of the High North

• Unmapped area and unknown world gt Periphery
  or marginal area gt Frontier gt Resource area for
  states gt Strategic security zone for super
  powers gt Geopolitical change gt Environmental
  linchpin gt Distinctive international region gt
  Globalisation and its flows gt Stable, peaceful
  and innovative cooperative area gt Another
  geopolitical change gt ??

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Historical perspective I

• Regionalism Local and regional utilization of
  natural resources, and Northern connections,
  communications and communities (e.g. Viking Age)
• State policy From terra nullius under area for
  taxation, privilegions and missionaries still a
  frontier
• World politics Major powers in northern waters
  for fishing and catching whales
• State policy Under state sovereignty, warfare in
  northern seas and internationalization into
  settlements, and militarization

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Historical perspective II

• State policy State hegemony (with closed
  borders), and industrialization and modernization
  (e.g. cheap energy)
• Regionalism Decolonization, devolution, and
  recognition of ethnic minorities, and
  international cooperation by Indigenous peoples
  and civil societies
• State policy from hegemony into cooperation and
  region-building (e.g. BEAR and AC)

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In the early-1990s Significant geopolitical
change

• From confrontation to cooperation
• The transition period of the international
  system Instead of high tension and confrontation
  trans-boundary cooperation and stability Age
  of the Arctic
• Civilian and intergovernmental activities for
  environmental protection
• New regionalism e.g. NNE and CORA
• From state hegemony into sophisticated policy
  (e.g. Northern dimension as metaphor for new
  North South relations)

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Current perspective

• High stability and peacefulness within the region
  based on international cooperation
• New and dynamic institutional landscape based on
  wide international (multilateral) cooperation
• No conflicts but some disputes on maritime
  borders - rules by UNCLOS
• Claims on land and waters by Natives
• Asymmetric environmental conflicts
• Global (environmental) problems, and flows of
  globalization

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Main themes of Geopolitics and IR

• 1) Increasing circumpolar cooperation by
  indigenous peoples organizations and
  sub-national governments
• 2) Region-building with unified states as major
  actors
• 3) New kind of relationship between the
  circumpolar North and the outside world
• (Heininen 2004 in Arctic Human Development Report)

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Key international actors

• Unified States the Arctic Eight states from
  outside
• IGOs Arctic Council, Barents Euro-Arctic
  Council, Parliamentarians of the Arctic and the
  Nordic Council of Ministers UNs, NATO and EU
• INGOs Inuit Circumpolar Council and the Saami
  Council, and Greenpeace International and WWF,
  and International Arctic Science Committee,
  Northern Research Forum and the University of the
  Arctic
• Sub-national governments Home Rule Government of
  Greenland and the Russian Association for Small
  Northern Nations (RAIPON)
• TNCs e.g. mining, oil and natural gas, fishery
  and forestry companies state monopolies /
  state-dominated oil and gas companies

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Role and importance of the arctic states

• The role and position of the Arctic states was
  changed due to the 1st geopolitical change
• Still the most important actor
• The states emphasize the importance of the Arctic
  Council but have their own interests, agendas,
  priorities and strategies and policies
• Iceland, Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Norway,
  Russia and USA have recently accepted and
  approved their arctic/northern strategy
• The five littoral states with their (ministerial)
  meetings

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Table 1. Membership of the Arctic States in
International Organizations

• EU EEA NATO EAPC NAFTAG7/8
• Canada x x x x
• Denmark x x x x
• - Green (x-OCT) (x)
• - Faroes (x)
• Finland x x x
• Iceland x x x
• Norway x x x
• Russia x x
• Sweden x x x
• USA x x x x

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Table 2. Membership of the Arctic States in
Regional Organizations

• AC Ilulissat BEAC CBSS NCM ND
• Canada x x
• Denmark x x x x x x
• - Green (x) (x) x x
• - Faroes ? x ?
• Finland x x x x x
• Iceland x x x x x
• Norway x x x x x x
• Russia x x x x x
• Sweden x x x x x
• USA x x
• (EU) x x x

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Table 3. Treaties dealing with the Arctic

• ILO Spitz PBear NEAFC UNCLOS
• Canada x x (x) x
• Denmark x x x x x
• - Greenland (x) x
• - Faroes x
• Finland x x
• Iceland x x x
• Norway x x x x x
• Russia x x x x
• Sweden x x
• USA x x

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Canada

• Northern country and the global leader in
  Arctic science
• The priority areas of the Canadas Northern
  Strategy (July 2009)
• 1. Exercising our Arctic sovereignty
• 2. Promoting social and economic development
• 3. Protecting the Norths environmental heritage
  
• 4. Improving and devolving northern governance
  and
• plus, the International dimension of the
  Northern Strategy.
• Definition Own North Canadas far North, and
  Canadas North is about people

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Denmark/Greenland

• The Commonwealth as a major player in the
  Arctic
• Denmark/Greenlands (draft) strategy The Arctic
  at a Time of Transition Draft Strategy for
  Activities in the Arctic Region (June 2006)
  contains a series of objectives for the work,
  which is twofold
• supporting and strengthening Greenland's
  development towards increased autonomy, and
• to maintain the commonwealth's position as a
  major player in the Arctic
• Definition The Arctic in recent years become a
  central location on the world map

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Iceland

• Only country located entirely within the Arctic
  region
• The highlights of the Report on Sustainable
  Development in the Arctic (September 2009)
• 1. International cooperation (with neighboring
  countries and in the context of the AC)
• 2. Security (through int coop and meaning
  maritime safety)
• 3. Resource development and environmental
  protection (esp. Icelands interests in fishery)
  
• 4. Transportation (meaning new trans-arctic
  shipping routes and aviation)
• 5. People and cultures (incl. use of regions
  uniqueness in business) and
• 6. Research, higher education and monitoring
  (through int coop)
• Definition Iceland is located on the periphery
  of the Arctic in the center of the North Atlantic
  Ocean

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Norway

• Growing recognition of the importance of the
  High North for Norway as a whole
• The Main political priorities for the Strategy
  are
• 1. To exercise an authority in a credible,
  consistent and predictable way
• 2. To develop knowledge in and about the High
  North
• 3. To promote sustainable use of environ and nat
  resources in the High North
• 4. To provide further development of petroleum
  activities in the Barents Sea
• 5. To safeguard the livelihoods, traditions and
  cultures of indigenous peoples
• 6. To further develop people-to-people
  cooperation in the High North
• 7. To strengthen cooperation with Russia and
  increase Russias engagement
• Definition the High North means more or less the
  Barents Sea region, and the High North has been
  placed firmly on the map of Europe

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Russian Federation

• Maintain the role of a leading Arctic power
• The strategy priorities of Fundamental of State
  Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic in
  the Period up to 2020 and Beyond (Sept 2008)
• 1. Legal enlargement of Russias outer maritime
  areas through active interaction with the
  sub-Arctic states on the delimitation of the
  Arctic Ocean by international law
• 2. To create a uniform Arctic search and rescue
  regime and prevention of accidents
• 3. Strengthening of bilateral relationships
  within the framework of regional organizations
• 4. Assistance in the organization, management and
  use of cross-polar air and sea routes
• 5. Active contributions to international Arctic
  forums (e.g. Russia-EU partnership)
• 6. Delimitation of maritime spaces in the Arctic
  Ocean and Russian presence in Svalbard
• 7. Improvement of state management of the social
  and economic development
• 8. Improvement of the quality of life for
  indigenous peoples and their economic activities
• 9. Development of the Arctic resource base
  through improved technological capabilities
• 10. Modernization and development of Russias
  Arctic infrastructure
• Definition the five littoral states of the
  Arctic Ocean

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U.S.A.

• The U.S.A. is an Arctic nation
• Interpreted objectives of the United States
  Arctic Strategy Arctic Region Policy (January
  2009)
• 1. National security and homeland security
  interests in the Arctic
• 2. International governance (through the Arctic
  Council)
• 3. Boundary issues (incl. extended continental
  shelf)
• 4. International scientific cooperation
• 5. Maritime transportation
• 6. Economic development, particularly energy
• 7. Environmental protection and conservation
• Definition the Arctic with a matrix of issues

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Table 4. Priorities and Objectives

• Sover Econ Envir Gov Peo/I Intcoop
• Canada (4) x x x x (x)
• DK/Gr (2) x (x) x
• Iceland (6-7) x/x x x/x x x (AC)
• Norway (7) x x x x x/x x (Ru)
• Russia (10) x x/x x/x /x x (AC)
• USA (7) x x/x x x/x x (AC)
• EU (3) x x x x

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The emphasis of the Arctic states in the High
North - main characteristics

• Canada Sovereignty over sea-areas and arctic
  identity
• Denmark/Greenland Self-governing of Greenland
  and cooperation between the littoral states
• Finland Too early to say, since work in progress
  - maybe economics, strengthening of Arctic
  Council, and presence of European Union
• Iceland Natural resources, new trans-arctic sea
  routes and international cooperation
• Norway Comprehensive policy and utilization of
  energy resources in the High North (Barents
  Region) in cooperation with Russia
• Russia Comprehensive and pragmatic policy by the
  Federation and utilization of natural resources
• Sweden The Baltic Sea!
• USA Homeland security, freedom of the seas, and
  science

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In the 2010s

• Another significant environmental, geoeconomic
  and geopolitical change is occurring
• The region has recently witnessed a manifold
  growth in its geo-strategic importance due to
  several reasons
• Growing global interest toward the region and its
  rich natural resources
• Several indicators of a change e.g. climate
  change
• --- The question the post-Cold War period is
  over?

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Climate change

• Speed its rapid!
• E.g. thinning of sea ice, melting of glaciers,
  thawing of permafrost, release of methane
• Multi-functionality socio-economic impacts e.g.
  collapse of man-made infrastructure and
  settlements
• Indirect scarcity of food, lack of trad. food
• The uncertainty threatens people and socities,
  even state sovereignty

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Consequences

• Climate change has become a relevant security
  factor with special features
• It has caused change(s) in problem definition on
  security discourses and premises new northern
  security/ies
• This requests good governance by citizens, and
  consequently, security may become less mystified
  and controlled by the state and the
  (security-)political elite

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The High North in world politics

• Geopolitical point of view as a highly strategic
  area
• Scientific point of view as a laboratory or
  workshop for research and the environ and
  climate change
• Diversity of life as a distinct component of the
  diversity of a nature on the Earth
• Viewpoint of stability as not overtly plagued by
  anyone big regional or global problem
• Viewpoint of innovations and being a driving
  force innovations in governance/co-management,
  and in political and legal arrangements e.g.
  devolution of power

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Geopolitical point of view

• Highly strategic area militarily and
  military-politically e.g. SSBNs, NMD system
• Highly strategic area politically and
  security-politically e.g. energy security
• Highly strategic area (geo)economically and from
  point of view of international trade e.g. oil and
  gas, and new (global) sea routes and air routes

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The resource models

• Rich in natural resources
• E.g. marine resources and minerals
• Nowadays energy resources onshore
• Larger energy resources offshore option!
• Behind (global) energy security

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The Russian continental shelf claim
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New and global routes

• Option and importance of new and global (much
  potential) sea and air routes
• Northern Sea Route and North-West Passage
• New trans-arctic sea routes

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The technology models

• Strategic importance of the High North for the
  military
• E.g. nuclear weapon system, SSBNs, missiles,
  radars and the C3I-system
• Particularly, area for arms testing, military
  maneuvres and training
• Militarization of the space e.g. NMD

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Special features of Northern security

• Technology models of geopolitics
• Nuclear safety
• Interrelations between the environment and
  security (the military)
• Relations between Indigenous peoples and security
  / the military
• (Global) Energy security
• Climate change

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The Environment

• Many and acute reasons for environmental concern
  - threats / risks of security
• Northerners living close to, and from, a nature
  with traditional ecological knowledge
• Environmental protection as a new and common
  field of foreign policy
• The driving force for civilian action and
  inter-governmental cooperation in the High North
• gt the AC and its Working Groups e.g. AMAP,
  CAFF, PAME and SDWG

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Scientific point of view

• The Arctic as an environmental linchpin with a
  critical role in global environmental issues
• as a laboratory and workshop for
  (multi-disciplinary) research on the environment
  and climate change
• as a workshop for the interplay between
  knowledges, and science and politics
• as useful models for future action on
  environmental protection based on international
  and institutional cooperation

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Diversity of...

• Diversity of nature as a distinct component of
  the diversity of a nature on the Earth
• Diversity of life as a distinct component of the
  diversity of cultures and community viability in
  the world
• Cultural integrity the experience of the Arctic
  demonstrates that cultures can remain viable even
  in the face of rapid and multi-dimensional
  changes (AHDR 2004)

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Viewpoint of innovations

• Technological advances evidence from the Arctic
  demonstrates both the feasibility and the
  desirability of applying advanced technologies to
  address social problems
• Innovations in governance and co-management, and
  in political and legal arrangements - e.g.
  devolution of power
• Being, or becoming, a driving force!

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Political and legal innovations

• The Arctic has become a leader in the
  development of innovative political and legal
  arrangements that meet the needs of the residents
  of the region without rupturing the larger
  political systems in which the region is
  embedded
• (Conclusions by AHDR 2004)

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Also gaps in knowledge e.g.

• Settlers to learn more about the experiences of
  recent settlers in the Arctic and their
  interactions with the regions indigenous peoples
• Industry to improve our understanding of the
  roles that modern industrial activities play in
  the pursuit of sustainable development at the
  regional level
• IR there has been little debate over how human
  and environmentally sustainable regional
  development are facilitated or constrained by
  security policies / military activities in the
  region

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Stability and peacefulness

• Viewpoint of stability as not overtly plagued by
  anyone big regional or global problem, such as
  war or armed conflict
• - this is an achievement in the 2010s!

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Task for the workshops

• Recognize and list, and describe, most important
  and valuable things, or values, or experiences,
  or learned lessons, what the High North has
  given, or can give, to the (rest of the) world
• Further, how much this is dealing with material
  and immaterial values