Costs of generating electricity (http://www.iea.org/Textbase/npsum/ElecCostSUM.pdf $US quoted)

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Costs of generating electricity(http//www.iea.or
g/Textbase/npsum/ElecCostSUM.pdf US quoted)

• Coal (Avg of 27 plants) 1K-1.5K/kWe capital
• 45-60/MW.h (Inv. 50, OM 15, Fuel 35)
• Gas (23) 0.6-0.8K/kWe
• 40-63/MWh (Inv. 20, OM 7, Fuel 73)
• Nuclear (13) 1-2K/kWe
• 30-50/MWh (Inv. 70, OM 13, Fuel 10)
• Wind (19) 1-2K/kWe
• 45-140/MWh (OM 12-40)
• Load factor variability is a major factor in
  setting the costs of running a wind plant
• Solar (6) approaches 300/MWh
• Cogeneration (24) estimated 30-70/MWh

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Types of Windmills/turbines
Altogether, there are 150,000 windmills operating
in the US alone (mainly for water
extraction/distribution)
7 efficiency, but work at low wind speeds
According to wikipedia, as of 2006 installed
world-wide capacity is 74 GW (same capacity as
only 3.5 dams the size of the three-Gorges
project in China).
Up to 56 efficiency with 3 blades, do very
little at low wind speeds
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Wind Energy
According the article from the IEA (previous
slide), the typical availability of a wind farm
is 17-38 for land-based plants and 40-45 for
off-shore plants.
An extensive site for Wind Information!!
http//www.windpower.org/en/tour/wres/euromap.htm
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Worldwide Wind Capacity
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power
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US Wind Distribution
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power
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Types of Windmills (cont.)
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Altamont Pass (CA)
http//www.ilr.tu-berlin.de/WKA/windfarm/altcal.ht
ml
6000 turbines, built 1980s
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San Gorgonio Pass (CA)
http//www.ilr.tu-berlin.de/WKA/windfarm/sgpcal.ht
ml
3500 turbines, built 1980s
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Basics of a Wind Turbine
http//www.nrel.gov/wind/animation.html
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GE 2.5MW generator
Blade diameter 100m Wind range
3.5m/s to 25m/s Rated wind speed 11.5 m/s
http//www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/wind_tur
bines/en/downloads/ge_25mw_brochure.pdf
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GE 3.5 MW
Blade diameter 111m Wind range
3.5m/s to 27 m/s Rated wind speed 14
m/s Specifically designed for off-shore
deployment
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Web site for movie on wind turbine construction
http//www.gepower.com/businesses/ge_wind_energy/e
n/image_gallery/index.htm
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Wind Turbines
http//www.afm.dtu.dk/wind/turbines/img0003.jpg
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Water wheels through the ages
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ITAIPU (Brazil/Paraguay)
http//www.solar.coppe.ufrj.br/itaipu.html
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ITAIPU (Brazil/Paraguay)
http//www.solar.coppe.ufrj.br/itaipu.html
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Essentials of PV design
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Basics of Photo-Voltaics

• A useful link demonstrating the design of a basic
  solar cell may be found at
• http//jas.eng.buffalo.edu/education/pnapp/solarce
  ll/index.html
• There are several different types of solar cells
• Single crystal Si (NASA) most efficient (up to
  30) and most expensive (have been 100s/W, now
  much lower)
• Amorphous Si not so efficient (5-10 or so)
  degrade with use (but improvements have been
  made), cheap (2.5/W)
• Recycled/polycrystalline Si (may be important in
  the future)

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Engineering work-around 2
Martin Greens record cell. The grid deflects
light into a light
trapping structure
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Power characteristics (Si)
100 cm2 silicon Cell under different Illumination
conidtions
Material Level of efficiency in Lab Level of efficiency in Production
Monocrystalline Silicon approx. 24 14 to17
Polycrystalline Silicon approx. 18 13 to15
Amorphous Silicon approx. 13 5 to7
http//www.solarserver.de/wissen/photovoltaik-e.ht
ml
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Solar Cell Costs
http//www.nrel.gov/pv/pv_manufacturing/cost_capac
ity.html
Costs have dropeed from about 5.89/pk Watt
output in 1992 to 2.73/pW in 2005
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Solar House
This house in Oxford produces more electricity
than it uses (but only about 4kWh/yr!!
According to the NREL, hardly worth selling)
http//www.nrel.gov/pv/pv_manufacturing/cost_capac
ity.html
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Advanced designs-multilayers
http//www.nrel.gov/highperformancepv/
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Typical products
Flood light system for 390 (LEDs plus xtal.
cells)
15W systems for 150
Battery charges (flexible Amorphous cells)
http//www.siliconsolar.com/
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Example of a retrofit
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Dick Swanson
Martin Green
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Fuel Cells- sample schematics
http//www.iit.edu/smart/garrear/fuelcells.htm
For more details on these and other types, see
also http//www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelce
lls/fuelcells/fc_types.html
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Ballard Power Systems (PEM)

• 85kW basic module power
• (scalable from 10 to 300kW
• They say) for passenger cars.
• 212 lb (97 kg)
• 284 V 300 A
• Volume 75 liters
• Operates at 80oC
• H2 as the fuel (needs a
• reformer to make use of
• Methanol etc.)
• 300kW used for buses

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Fuel Cell Energy (Direct Fuel Cell)

• Appears to be a molten
• carbonate systme based on
• their description
• Standard line includes units
• of 0.3,1.5 and 3 MW
• Fuel is CH4 (no need for
• external reformer) can also
• use coal gas, biogas and
• methanol
• Marketed for high-quality power
• applications (fixed location)

This is a nominal 300kW unit (typically
delivers 250kW according to their press
releases). Most of the units installed to date
are of this size.
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http//www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/0
3/dcfcw/dcfcw03.html
http//www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/0
3/dcfcw/Cooper202.pdf
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The Hydrogen Hype

• H2 burns with 02 to make water
• H2 comes from the oceans (lots of it)
• Fuel cells can burn it efficiently

The Realities

• Cant mine it, it is NOT an energy source
• Why not just use electricity directly?
• Even as a liquid, energy density is low
• Storage and transport are difficult issues
• More dangerous (explosive) than CH4
• No existing infrastructure

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Hydrogen Economy

• Hydrogen seems to be an attractive alternative to
  fossil fuels, but it cannot be mined. You need to
  treat it more like electricity than gasoline
  (i.e. as a carrier of energy, not as a primary
  source).

• Need lots of research in areas such as
• Production
• Transmission/storage
• Distribution/end use

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http//www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pd
fs/review04/4_science_stevens_04.pdf
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http//www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pd
fs/review04/4_science_stevens_04.pdf
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http//www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pd
fs/review04/4_science_stevens_04.pdf
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Storage Possabilities
Weak binding energy -gt Low T required Carbon
nanotubes Porous materials Zeolites
Physisorbtion
Reversible Hydrides PdH, LiH, Large
energy input to release H2 Slow Dynamics
Chemical Reaction
Very large energy input to release H2 Not
technologically feasible
Chemisorbtion
H2 trapped in cages or pores Variation of
physical properties (T or P) to trap/release H2
Encapsulation
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http//www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pd
fs/review04/4_science_stevens_04.pdf
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DOE report from 2004 is available at

• http//www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pd
  fs/review04/4_science_stevens_04.pdf

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http//www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pd
fs/review04/4_science_stevens_04.pdf
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Three Gorges Dam (China)
http//www.physicstoday.org/vol-59/iss-12/p38.html