The Origin of Species

1
Chapter 24
The Origin of Species
2
Overview That Mystery of Mysteries

• In the Galápagos Islands Darwin discovered plants
  and animals found nowhere else on Earth

3

• Speciation, the origin of new species, is at the
  focal point of evolutionary theory
• Evolutionary theory must explain how new species
  originate and how populations evolve
• Microevolution consists of changes in allele
  frequency in a population over time
• Macroevolution refers to broad patterns of
  evolutionary change above the species level

4
Concept 24.1 The biological species concept
emphasizes reproductive isolation

• Species is a Latin word meaning kind or
  appearance
• Biologists compare morphology, physiology,
  biochemistry, and DNA sequences when grouping
  organisms

5
The Biological Species Concept

• The biological species concept states that a
  species is a group of populations whose members
  have the potential to interbreed in nature and
  produce viable, fertile offspring they do not
  breed successfully with other populations
• Gene flow between populations holds the phenotype
  of a population together

6
Figure 24.2
(a) Similarity between different species
(b) Diversity within a species
7
Reproductive Isolation

• Reproductive isolation is the existence of
  biological factors (barriers) that impede two
  species from producing viable, fertile offspring
• Hybrids are the offspring of crosses between
  different species
• Reproductive isolation can be classified by
  whether factors act before or after fertilization

8

• Prezygotic barriers block fertilization from
  occurring by
• Impeding different species from attempting to
  mate
• Preventing the successful completion of mating
• Hindering fertilization if mating is successful

9

• Habitat isolation Two species encounter each
  other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy
  different habitats, even though not isolated by
  physical barriers

10

• Temporal isolation Species that breed at
  different times of the day, different seasons, or
  different years cannot mix their gametes

11

• Behavioral isolation Courtship rituals and other
  behaviors unique to a species are effective
  barriers

Video Albatross Courtship Ritual
Video Giraffe Courtship Ritual
Video Blue-footed Boobies Courtship Ritual
12

• Mechanical isolation Morphological differences
  can prevent successful mating

13

• Gametic Isolation Sperm of one species may not
  be able to fertilize eggs of another species

14
Figure 24.3_b
Prezygotic barriers
Habitat Isolation
Temporal Isolation
Behavioral Isolation
Mechanical Isolation
Gametic Isolation
Individuals of different species
MATING ATTEMPT
FERTILIZATION
(c)
(g)
(a)
(e)
(f)
(d)
(b)
15

• Postzygotic barriers prevent the hybrid zygote
  from developing into a viable, fertile adult
• Reduced hybrid viability
• Reduced hybrid fertility
• Hybrid breakdown

16

• Reduced hybrid viability Genes of the different
  parent species may interact and impair the
  hybrids development

17

• Reduced hybrid fertility Even if hybrids are
  vigorous, they may be sterile

18

• Hybrid breakdown Some first-generation hybrids
  are fertile, but when they mate with another
  species or with either parent species, offspring
  of the next generation are feeble or sterile

19
Figure 24.3_c
Postzygotic barriers
Reduced Hybrid Fertility
Hybrid Breakdown
Reduced Hybrid Viability
VIABLE, FERTILE OFFSPRING
FERTILIZATION
(h)
(i)
(l)
(j)
(k)
20
Limitations of the Biological Species Concept

• The biological species concept cannot be applied
  to fossils or asexual organisms (including all
  prokaryotes)
• The biological species concept emphasizes absence
  of gene flow
• However, gene flow can occur between distinct
  species
• For example, grizzly bears and polar bears can
  mate to produce grolar bears

21
Figure 24.4
Grizzly bear (U. arctos)
Polar bear (U. maritimus)
Hybrid grolar bear
22
Other Definitions of Species

• Other species concepts emphasize the unity within
  a species rather than the separateness of
  different species
• The morphological species concept defines a
  species by structural features
• It applies to sexual and asexual species but
  relies on subjective criteria

23

• The ecological species concept views a species in
  terms of its ecological niche
• It applies to sexual and asexual species and
  emphasizes the role of disruptive selection
• The phylogenetic species concept defines a
  species as the smallest group of individuals on a
  phylogenetic tree
• It applies to sexual and asexual species, but it
  can be difficult to determine the degree of
  difference required for separate species

24
Concept 24.2 Speciation can take place with or
without geographic separation

• Speciation can occur in two ways
• Allopatric speciation
• Sympatric speciation

25
Figure 24.5
(a)
(b)
Allopatric speciation. A population forms a new
species while geographically isolated from its
parent population.
Sympatric speciation. A subset of a
population forms a new species without
geographic separation.
26
Allopatric (Other Country) Speciation

• In allopatric speciation, gene flow is
  interrupted or reduced when a population is
  divided into geographically isolated
  subpopulations
• For example, the flightless cormorant of the
  Galápagos likely originated from a flying species
  on the mainland

27
The Process of Allopatric Speciation

• The definition of barrier depends on the ability
  of a population to disperse
• For example, a canyon may create a barrier for
  small rodents, but not birds, coyotes, or pollen

28
Figure 24.6
A. harrisii
A. leucurus
29

• Separate populations may evolve independently
  through mutation, natural selection, and genetic
  drift
• Reproductive isolation may arise as a result of
  genetic divergence
• For example, mosquitofish in the Bahamas comprise
  several isolated populations in different ponds

30
Figure 24.7
(a) Under high predation
(b) Under low predation
31
Evidence of Allopatric Speciation

• 15 pairs of sibling species of snapping shrimp
  (Alpheus) are separated by the Isthmus of Panama
• These species originated 9 to 13 million years
  ago, when the Isthmus of Panama formed and
  separated the Atlantic and Pacific waters

32
Figure 24.8
A. formosus
A. nuttingi
Atlantic Ocean
Isthmus of Panama
Pacific Ocean
A. panamensis
A. millsae
33

• Regions with many geographic barriers typically
  have more species than do regions with fewer
  barriers
• Reproductive isolation between populations
  generally increases as the distance between them
  increases
• For example, reproductive isolation increases
  between dusky salamanders that live further apart

34
Figure 24.9
2.0
1.5
Degree of reproductive isolation
1.0
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
300
Geographic distance (km)
35

• Barriers to reproduction are intrinsic
  separation itself is not a biological barrier

36
Figure 24.10
EXPERIMENT
Initial population of fruit flies (Drosophila pseu
doobscura)
Some flies raised on starch medium
Some flies raised on maltose medium
Mating experiments after 40 generations
RESULTS
Female
Female
Starch population 2
Starch population 1
Starch
Maltose
Starch population 1
Starch
22
9
18
15
Male
Male
Starch population 2
8
12
20
15
Maltose
Number of matings in experimental group
Number of matings in control group
37
Sympatric (Same Country) Speciation

• In sympatric speciation, speciation takes place
  in geographically overlapping populations

38
Polyploidy

• Polyploidy is the presence of extra sets of
  chromosomes due to accidents during cell division
• Polyploidy is much more common in plants than in
  animals
• An autopolyploid is an individual with more than
  two chromosome sets, derived from one species

39

• An allopolyploid is a species with multiple sets
  of chromosomes derived from different species

40
Figure 24.11-1
Species A 2n 6
Species B 2n 4
Meiotic error chromosome number not reduced from
2n to n
Normal gamete n 3
Unreduced gamete with 4 chromosomes
41
Figure 24.11-2
Species A 2n 6
Species B 2n 4
Meiotic error chromosome number not reduced from
2n to n
Normal gamete n 3
Unreduced gamete with 4 chromosomes
Hybrid with 7 chromosomes
42
Figure 24.11-3
Species A 2n 6
Species B 2n 4
Meiotic error chromosome number not reduced from
2n to n
Normal gamete n 3
Unreduced gamete with 4 chromosomes
Hybrid with 7 chromosomes
Normal gamete n 3
Unreduced gamete with 7 chromosomes
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Figure 24.11-4
Species A 2n 6
Species B 2n 4
Meiotic error chromosome number not reduced from
2n to n
Normal gamete n 3
Unreduced gamete with 4 chromosomes
Hybrid with 7 chromosomes
Normal gamete n 3
Unreduced gamete with 7 chromosomes
New species viable fertile hybrid (allopolyploid)
2n 10
44

• Many important crops (oats, cotton, potatoes,
  tobacco, and wheat) are polyploids

45
Habitat Differentiation

• Sympatric speciation can also result from the
  appearance of new ecological niches
• For example, the North American maggot fly can
  live on native hawthorn trees as well as more
  recently introduced apple trees

46
Sexual Selection

• Sexual selection can drive sympatric speciation
• Sexual selection for mates of different colors
  has likely contributed to speciation in cichlid
  fish in Lake Victoria

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Figure 24.12
EXPERIMENT
Monochromatic orange light
Normal light
P. pundamilia
P. nyererei
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Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation A Review

• In allopatric speciation, geographic isolation
  restricts gene flow between populations
• Reproductive isolation may then arise by natural
  selection, genetic drift, or sexual selection in
  the isolated populations
• Even if contact is restored between populations,
  interbreeding is prevented

49

• In sympatric speciation, a reproductive barrier
  isolates a subset of a population without
  geographic separation from the parent species
• Sympatric speciation can result from polyploidy,
  natural selection, or sexual selection

50
Concept 24.3 Hybrid zones reveal factors that
cause reproductive isolation

• A hybrid zone is a region in which members of
  different species mate and produce hybrids
• Hybrids are the result of mating between species
  with incomplete reproductive barriers

51
Patterns Within Hybrid Zones

• A hybrid zone can occur in a single band where
  adjacent species meet
• For example, two species of toad in the genus
  Bombina interbreed in a long and narrow hybrid
  zone

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Figure 24.13
EUROPE
Fire-bellied toad range
Fire-bellied toad, Bombina bombina
Hybrid zone
Yellow-bellied toad range
0.99
Hybrid zone
0.9
Frequency of B. variegata-specific allele
Yellow-bellied toad range
Fire-bellied toad range
0.5
Yellow-bellied toad, Bombina variegata
0.1
0.01
30
20
10
0
10
20
40
Distance from hybrid zone center (km)
53

• Hybrids often have reduced fitness compared with
  parent species
• The distribution of hybrid zones can be more
  complex if parent species are found in patches
  within the same region

54
Hybrid Zones over Time

• When closely related species meet in a hybrid
  zone, there are three possible outcomes
• Reinforcement
• Fusion
• Stability

55
Figure 24.14-4
Possible outcomes
Isolated population diverges
Hybrid zone
Reinforcement
OR
Fusion
OR
Gene flow
Hybrid individual
Population
Barrier to gene flow
Stability
56
Reinforcement Strengthening Reproductive Barriers

• The reinforcement of barriers occurs when hybrids
  are less fit than the parent species
• Over time, the rate of hybridization decreases
• Where reinforcement occurs, reproductive barriers
  should be stronger for sympatric than allopatric
  species
• For example, in populations of flycatchers, males
  are more similar in allopatric populations than
  sympatric populations

57
Figure 24.15
Females choosing between these males
Females choosing between these males
28
Sympatric pied male
Allopatric pied male
24
Sympatric collared male
Allopatric collared male
20
16
Number of females
12
8
4
(none)
0
Own species
Other species
Other species
Own species
Female mate choice
Female mate choice
58
Fusion Weakening Reproductive Barriers

• If hybrids are as fit as parents, there can be
  substantial gene flow between species
• If gene flow is great enough, the parent species
  can fuse into a single species
• For example, researchers think that pollution in
  Lake Victoria has reduced the ability of female
  cichlids to distinguish males of different
  species
• This might be causing the fusion of many species

59
Figure 24.16
Pundamilia nyererei
Pundamilia pundamilia
Pundamilia turbid water, hybrid offspring from
a location with turbid water
60
Stability Continued Formation of Hybrid
Individuals

• Extensive gene flow from outside the hybrid zone
  can overwhelm selection for increased
  reproductive isolation inside the hybrid zone

61
Concept 24.4 Speciation can occur rapidly or
slowly and can result from changes in few or many
genes

• Many questions remain concerning how long it
  takes for new species to form, or how many genes
  need to differ between species

62
The Time Course of Speciation

• Broad patterns in speciation can be studied using
  the fossil record, morphological data, or
  molecular data

63
Patterns in the Fossil Record

• The fossil record includes examples of species
  that appear suddenly, persist essentially
  unchanged for some time, and then apparently
  disappear
• Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould coined the
  term punctuated equilibria to describe periods of
  apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change
• The punctuated equilibrium model contrasts with a
  model of gradual change in a species existence

64
Figure 24.17
(a)
Punctuated pattern
Time
(b)
Gradual pattern
65
Speciation Rates

• The punctuated pattern in the fossil record and
  evidence from lab studies suggest that speciation
  can be rapid
• For example, the sunflower Helianthus anomalus
  originated from the hybridization of two other
  sunflower species

66
Figure 24.18
67
Figure 24.19
EXPERIMENT
H. annuus gamete
H. petiolarus gamete
F1 experimental hybrid (4 of the 2n
34 chromosomes are shown)
RESULTS
H. anomalus
Chromosome 1
Experimental hybrid
H. anomalus
Chromosome 2
Experimental hybrid
68

• The interval between speciation events can range
  from 4,000 years (some cichlids) to 40 million
  years (some beetles), with an average of 6.5
  million years

69
Studying the Genetics of Speciation

• A fundamental question of evolutionary biology
  persists How many genes change when a new
  species forms?
• Depending on the species in question, speciation
  might require the change of only a single allele
  or many alleles
• For example, in Japanese Euhadra snails, the
  direction of shell spiral affects mating and is
  controlled by a single gene

70

• In monkey flowers (Mimulus), two loci affect
  flower color, which influences pollinator
  preference
• Pollination that is dominated by either
  hummingbirds or bees can lead to reproductive
  isolation of the flowers
• In other species, speciation can be influenced by
  larger numbers of genes and gene interactions

71
Figure 24.20
M. lewisii with an M. cardinalis
flower-color allele
Typical Mimulus lewisii
(a)
(b)
Typical Mimulus cardinalis
(c)
M. cardinalis with an M. lewisii
flower-color allele
(d)
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From Speciation to Macroevolution

• Macroevolution is the cumulative effect of many
  speciation and extinction events