Pub Health 4310 Health Hazards in Industry - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

1 / 28
About This Presentation
Title:

Pub Health 4310 Health Hazards in Industry

Description:

Pub Health 4310 Health Hazards in Industry John Flores Lecture 1 Introduction and History Overview Syllabus Lists subject matter and required readings Course ... – PowerPoint PPT presentation

Number of Views:294
Avg rating:3.0/5.0
Slides: 29
Provided by: JFl49
Category:

less

Transcript and Presenter's Notes

Title: Pub Health 4310 Health Hazards in Industry


1
Pub Health 4310Health Hazards in Industry
  • John Flores
  • Lecture 1
  • Introduction and History

2
Overview
  • Syllabus
  • Lists subject matter and required readings
  • Course Description
  • Format
  • Lecture, discussions
  • Field Trips
  • Short Reports for each field trip
  • Exams (Four)
  • Course Content and Area of Emphasis
  • Industry definitions and terms
  • Discussion of specific industry hazards
  • Site visits to identify real workplace hazards

3
Overview
  • Location BNR- 314
  • Time M, W, F from 830 920 A.M.
  • Instructor John Flores
  • Contact Information
  • Office BNR 321
  • Office Hours To be posted, but if Im there
    just knock
  • Phone 797-8194
  • Email jflores_at_biology.usu.edu

4
Overview
  • Readings
  • Required Text
  • Recognition of Health Hazards in Industry, a
    review of materials and processes by William A.
    Burgess (Available at University Bookstore)
  • The Occupational Environment Its Evaluation
    and Control AIHA Press
  • Supplemental Reading from websites or newspaper
    articles.
  • Grading
  • 4 1-hr exams worth 100 points each 400 pts
  • Final exam worth 300 points (mandatory) 300 pts
  • 6 Field Trips (attend at least 5 10 points/field
    trip) 50 pts
  • 5 mini-reports, 20 points each 100 pts
  • Lab attendance, 10 pts each for 5 labs 50 pts
  • Complete lab work assignments 100 pts
  • Total 1000 pts

5
Overview
  • Determination of Final Grade
  • Letter Grade of Total Points
  • A gt92
  • A- 90 - 92
  • B 86 - lt90
  • B 82 - lt86
  • B- 80 - lt82
  • C 76 - lt80
  • C 72 - lt76
  • C- 70 - lt72
  • D 66 - lt70
  • D 60 - lt66
  • F lt60
  • Test Content and Format
  • Test questions from class lectures and assigned
    readings
  • Each exam will cover information since preceding
    exam
  • Final exam will cover first 4 exams and
    information since the last exam
  • (75 from first 4 exams, and 25 from material
    since last exam)

6
Overview
  • Field Trips
  • 6 times during the semester we will go on a field
    trip. I will try to get a van, but we may have
    to car pool. Each field trip is worth 10 points,
    5 are required, but this gives you an opportunity
    to get 10 points extra credit.
  • Field Trip Reports
  • 5 reports are required at 20 pts each, but 6
    reports can be completed for up to 20 extra
    credit points.
  • Purpose of reports To determine what hazards
    stood out in your mind, and what next steps as an
    IH you want to take
  • Include at least 3 paragraphs. Report should be
    1-2 pages, more than 2 pages will not get you a
    better grade, you might even lose points. Most
    managers wont take the time to read more than a
    2 page report.
  • Paragraph 1 brief summary of what the company
    does
  • Paragraph 2 ID the 5 major hazards you noticed
  • Paragraph 3 What are the next steps to address
    each hazard.

7
Industrial Hygiene
  • What is industrial hygiene?
  • The science of anticipation, recognition,
    evaluation, and control of workplace conditions
    that may cause injury or illness to workers.
  • It is also an art.
  • Safety vs. Industrial Hygiene
  • Safety worries about what will hurt you right
    now.
  • Industrial hygiene has to consider those things
    that will hurt you right now, but has to be
    especially concerned with what can you be exposed
    to today that is going to impede or impair you in
    the future.
  • Course Focus
  • Anticipation and recognition of potential
    hazards, the evaluation and control will come
    later.

8
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Learning Goals
  • Understand how and why the social goal of
    providing occupational health and safety (OHS)
    protection services is an on-going activity with
    a long and sporadic history of accomplishments.
  • Be able to identify at least one name and their
    contributions to OHS in the time frames of
    500-3000 years ago, 100-500 years ago, and in the
    last 100 years.
  • Be familiar with the major pieces of OHS
    legislation in the United States.
  • Be able to differentiate among the alphabet soup
    of OHS organizations including OSHA, NIOSH, ABIH,
    ACGIH, and AIHA.

9
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Early History (3000 to 200 years ago)
  • Prehistoric speculations Survival was (and still
    can be) the ultimate occupational disease.
    Concerns with acute health and safety hazards
    were addressed at an individual, family, and/or
    tribal level. The development of agriculture and
    domesticated livestock lead to settlements and
    the Neolithic Revolution.
  • Social and economic stratification occurs in
    every society. The lowest socio-economic strata
    do the dirtiest jobs (most objectionable,
    irritating, and/or hazardous).
  • Historically, ones "occupational" specialization
    had either political, economic, or/and social
    bases.
  • Forced labors of the slave, prisoner, or
    criminal.
  • Transition from slavery, to serfdom, to economic
    pay for work completed.
  • Stigmas against manual labor versus practicing
    arts and crafts.
  • Low value of individual employees (like
    interchangeable parts no training investment) is
    slowly being supplanted by recognized value in
    knowledge and experience.
  • Acceptance of a high fatality rate corresponded
    to the value of high birth rates and child labor.
  • Prestige of certain "high-risk" occupations
    continues through today.

10
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Early History (3000 to 200 years ago)
  • Events and people reporting an interest in
    occupational health during the Classical era were
    sporadic.
  • Hippocrates (about 460-370 BC)
  • Has been called the "Father of Medicine" and
    alluded to occupationally caused ailments
    although his focus was on the health of citizens
    not workers.
  • Recognized and recorded lead toxicity in miners
    but history shows no evidence that he also
    provided preventive follow-up.
  • Pliny the Elder (23-77 AD) Plinius Caecilius
    Secundus
  • Roman scholar and naturalist, who described the
    use of bladder-derived respirators for protection
    of cinnabar dusts and vapors (HgS and Hg), and
    lead.
  • He died investigating the eruption of Vesuvius.

11
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Early History (3000 to 200 years ago)
  • Medieval period in Europe (500-1500 AD) was
    characterized by a broad disinterest in science
    generally including the etiology of disease.
    ref Indr. Med. Surg. Sept 1962
  • Only widely scattered reports of recognized or
    recorded hazards, but there was no social,
    intellectual, political or economic push for
    change.
  • Guilds (medieval group of craftsmen) were
    reported to have developed assistance programs
    for disabled members and their families.

12
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Early History (3000 to 200 years ago)
  • Renaissance writings (1500-1800 AD) show a slow
    recognition of the social interest in worker
    health but not an economic interest as skilled
    workers.
  • Ulrich Ellenbog (1473) recognized that vapors of
    some metals were dangerous (Pb and Hg)
  • Georgius Agricola (1494-1555), a physician, wrote
    "De Re Metallica" (1556) that describes
    silicosis, respirators, and ventilation of metal
    mines, smelting, and refining in Bohemia (Czeck.)
  • Paracelsus (1493-1541) (Aureolus Theophrastus
    Bombastus von Hohenheim) worldly vagabond
    physician of central Europe, authored a treatise
    (published in 1567, 26 years after his death) on
    the etiology and medical treatment of various
    mining and smelting diseases in Austria.
  • Bernardo Ramazzini (1633-1714, Italy) a.k.a. The
    father of occupational medicine, was a well
    established physician-researcher who studied
    work-related diseases in/around Padua, Italy.
  • "De Morbis Artificum Diatriba" (Diseases of
    Workers - 1700) discussed about 100 occupations,
    their hazards, diseases, but focused more on
    therapy than prevention.
  • Taught Of what trade are you?" as an integral
    physicians question about a patient.
  • Percival Pott (1713-1788, England) conducted an
    epidemiological study that recognized soot and
    lack of hygiene as causes of scrotal cancer among
    chimney sweeps
  • His work helped create the "Chimney Sweepers Act
    of 1788," the first of a long and continuing
    series of health related legislative acts.
  • Charles Thackrah authors the first English book
    on Occupational Medicine (1830).

13
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Early beginnings of occupational health
    legislation (19th century)
  • The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain spawns
    industries, urbanization, the printing press and
    newspapers, and writers and speakers who created
    social interest groups who created political
    pressures, which lead to legislative remedies.
  • Growth of industrial technologies (coal, steel,
    steam, textiles, mass production) also created
    additional hazards of fire, accidents, and more
    toxic effects.
  • A shift from rural agricultural employment to
    urban industrial employment created a society of
    people having economic dependence on an employer
    instead of being a freeman with village support.
  • Technology in the form of the printing press and
    newspapers lead to the development of urban
    social consciousness, political organizations,
    the American and French revolutions, and the
    spawning of organized labor unions.

14
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Early beginnings of occupational health
    legislation (19th century)
  • The Early English Factory Acts (1833-1878) were
    directed toward worker protection (e.g., child
    labor, fire prevention, sanitation, and injuries
    from accidents).
  • It authorized a "Factory Inspectorate" that still
    exists today.
  • Required medical certification for children to
    work (resulting in birth registration in 1837)
    and later for workers in other trades.
  • Later application of these Acts were directed
    toward health hazards from lead paint, yellow
    phosphorus (early matches), and carbon disulfide
    (a rubber vulcanizer).
  • American occupational health intervention
    programs temporally paralleled those in Britain
    but were largely State initiated
  • Massachusetts Child Labor Law (1835) which did
    not have policing powers until 1867
  • However, no state (or prior Federal) agency had
    the powers of todays OSHA.

15
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Modern History (essentially the 20th Century)
  • Protecting the injured worker, Workers
    Compensation
  • Had its beginnings in the early 20th century,
  • It is a mechanism to supplement victim or family
    for loss of gainful employment without needing to
    sue the employer
  • This thinking preceded the development of cost
    saving programs in both safety and health.
  • Historically, to receive compensation under
    common-law, the employee must sue the employer
    and must prove negligence on the part of the
    employer.
  • The employers had two strong defenses
  • assumption of known risk by the employee (an
    implied contract), and
  • contributory negligence by the employee or a
    co-worker.

16
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Modern History (essentially the 20th Century)
  • Workers Compensation (cont.)
  • Statutory legislation placed limited financial
    responsibility (in terms of a set schedule of
    payments) on the employer without their
    assumption of fault (in essence, a "no-fault"
    insurance system).
  • Time lines and geographic progression of early
    workers compensation legislation
  • 1881 Switzerland
  • 1882 Germany
  • 1897 England (in terms of comprehensive
    coverage)
  • 1906 U.S. legislation covering railroad workers
    (interstate commerce authority)
  • was litigated for 6 yrs.
  • 1908 Federal employees were partly covered
    expanded in 1916.
  • 1911 States begin to pass compensation laws 42
    states by 1920.
  • 1948 Mississippi was last state to adopt
    workers compensation legislation.

17
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Modern History (essentially the 20th Century)
  • Workers compensation and disease
  • Occupational diseases lagged behind compensation
    for injuries because they were thought to be rare
    and restricted to isolated industries, like
    mining and metal processing.
  • Inclusion of compensation for a small number of
    specific diseases was delayed only slightly
    (Hawaii, 1917 California 1918). ref. Federal
    Task Force report, 1973.
  • The list of "scheduled" diseases expanded greatly
    following a series of state and Federally funded
    reports by Dr. Alice Hamilton (1915-25).
  • Recognition of the full spectrum of occupational
    diseases continues to lag behind the expanding
    introduction of new organic chemicals and the
    slow development of epidemiological associations
    between exposure and disease.
  • Disease recognition and compensation continue to
    be a legal issue.
  • For example, as a result of Froude v.
    Eagle-Picher (First Circuit Court of Appeals,
    82-869 and 82-1097) liability for delayed
    diseases such as lung cancer begins at the time
    the disease manifests (not upon exposure or
    termination from work this concept also applies
    to 3rd party and product liability suits).

18
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Modern History (essentially the 20th Century)
  • OSHA was established from the 1970
    William-Steiger Act (PL 91-596) which was a
    result of workplace deaths, injuries, illnesses,
    and a lack of comprehensive and consistent health
    and safety programs at the state and local level.
  • Through this act, OSHA was established within
    the Department of Labor, while NIOSH (formerly
    the Dept of IH of the USPHS) was established
    within the Department of Health and Human
    Services.
  • OSHA has since funded numerous state activities
    and organizations.
  • In particular, the Federal government funds state
    cooperative OSHA programs (5050 for OSHA
    compliance and 9010 for OSHA consultation).
  • About 50 of states now administer their own OSHA
    program.

19
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Modern History (essentially the 20th Century)
  • The history of governmental occupational health
    and safety agencies preceding OSHA started after
    the Civil War.
  • 1884 Bureau of Labor formed within the
    Department of Interior
  • 1888 An independent Department of Labor was
    formed without cabinet status
  • 1903 Department of Commerce and Labor formed.
  • 1910 Prohibitive tax for using white phosphorus
    matches was issued to protect workers.
  • 1913 Department of Labor formed (mining was
    still in Interior for over 60 years).
  • 1966 Metal and Nonmetallic Mine Safety Act was
    passed.
  • 1968 Farmington W.Va. coal mine explosion and
    fire kills over 80 miners.
  • 1969 Coal Mine Safety Health Law was passed
    initially administered by Bureau of Mines.
  • 1970 Williams-Steiger Act, PL 91-596, "The
    Occupational Safety and Health Act" created
    OSHA.
  • 1973 MESA (Mining Enforcement and Safety
    Administration) formed within Dept. of Interior.
  • 1976 Toxic Substances Control Act and Resource
    Conservation and Recovery Act admin. by EPA.
  • 1977 MESA became MSHA.
  • 1980 Comprehensive Environmental Response,
    Compensation, and Liability Act.

Phossy Jaw" by AE Miles, British Dental Journal
1972, Vol 133 203-6
20
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Modern History (essentially the 20th Century)
  • The history of governmental training and research
    organizations preceding NIOSH (now part of Dept.
    of Health and Human Services) was largely similar
    to OSHA but with perhaps more but smaller
    increments.
  • 1798 U.S. Marine Hospital Service, predecessor
    of U.S. Public Health Service.
  • 1912-14 Office of Industrial Hygiene Sanitation
    was formed. Illinois funds Alice Hamilton.
  • 1924 New Jersey studies the deaths of radium
    watch dial painters.
  • 1930 The Hawks Nest tunnel construction begins
    in Gauley Bridge, W. Va. kills 476 by 1935
    (this contributed to the passage of the
    Walsh-Healey Act of 1936).
  • 1937 Division of Industrial Hygiene within the
    National Institute of Health, USPHS.
  • 1943-44 Consolidation of USPHS laws established a
    Division of Occupational Health.
  • 1953 Department of Health, Education, and
    Welfare formed (incl. the USPHS).
  • 1970 Williams-Steiger Act, aka PL 91-596 or The
    Occupational Safety and Health Act creates NIOSH
  • 1979 Department of Health and Human Services
    formed (included the USPHS).

21
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Modern History (essentially the 20th Century)
  • The history of "non-governmental" health and
    safety organizations followed legislative and
    legal changes, not all of which were directed
    explicitly toward health and safety issues.
  • 1913 National Council for Industrial Safety
    (became National Safety Council in 1915) formed
    in response to Workers Compensation legislation.
  • 1915 American Public Health Association formed
    an "industrial hygiene" section.
  • 1916 American Occupational Medical Association.
  • 1925 Dr. Alice Hamilton (physician,
    toxicologist, and possibly the "first" American
    industrial hygienist) publishes "Industrial
    Poisons in the United States" (see also her
    autobiography Exploring the Dangerous Trades,"
    1943).
  • 1935 Social Security Act included provisions
    (Title III) for the USPHS to make grants-in- aid
    for I.H. research that established a corps of
    expertise and funded state I.H. programs (which
    were largely only "advisory," i.e., without
    compliance authority).
  • 1935 The Wagner Act (aka the National Labor
    Relations Act or the NLRA) guaranteed to
    employees the right to form labor organizations
    (unions), and to bargain collectively created
    the National Labor Relations Board to regulate
    unfair labor practices by employers.

22
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • Modern History (essentially the 20th Century)
  • The history of "non-governmental" health and
    safety organizations (cont.)
  • 1936 The Walsh-Healey Act established labor
    safety and health requirements for government
    contractors. Standards were to be (and still are)
    adopted as recommended by government "advisors."
    A group of governmental industrial hygienists
    organized a "conference" for health matters that
    became the ACGIH.
  • 1938 ACGIH - the American Conference of
    Governmental Industrial Hygienists initially was
    formed to develop and maintain the TLV list (for
    use in the Walsh-Healey Act) ACGIH is still
    largely limited to government and university
    IHs.
  • 1939 AIHA - the American Industrial Hygiene
    Association formed a professional society open
    to all practitioners (but in practical terms and
    demography is industry dominated).
  • 1942 The American Association of Industrial
    Nurses was formed.
  • 1947 The Taft-Hartley Act (aka the
    Labor-Management Relations Act of 1947) amended
    the NLRA to put certain restrictions on the
    rights and obligations of labor unions.
  • 1960 The American Board of Industrial Hygienists
    ABIH formed as a non- governmentally recognized
    certification body. CIHs automatically became a
    member of the Academy of IH (which is now a
    sort-of super committee within AIHA).

23
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • General historical timeline since the American
    Industrial Revolution
  • 1798 U.S. Marine Hospital Service, predecessor of
    U.S. Public Health Service.
  • 1884 Bureau of Labor formed within the Department
    of Interior
  • 1888 An independent Department of Labor was
    formed without cabinet status
  • 1903 Department of Commerce and Labor formed.
  • 1910 Prohibitive tax on white phosphorus matches
    was issued to protect worker health.
  • 1912-14 Office of Industrial Hygiene Sanitation
    was formed. Illinois funds Alice Hamilton.
  • 1913 National Council for Industrial Safety
    (became National Safety Council in 1915) formed
    in response to Workers Compensation legislation.
  • 1913 Department of Labor formed (mining was still
    in Interior for over 60 years).
  • 1915 American Public Health Association formed an
    "industrial hygiene" section.
  • 1916 American Occupational Medical Association
    forms.
  • 1924 New Jersey studies the deaths of radium
    watch dial painters.
  • 1925 Dr. Alice Hamilton (physician,
    toxicologist, and possibly the "first" American
    industrial hygienist) publishes "Industrial
    Poisons in the United States" (see also her
    autobiography Exploring the Dangerous Trades,"
    1943).

24
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • General historical timeline since the American
    Industrial Revolution
  • 1930 The Hawks Nest tunnel construction begins in
    Gauley Bridge, W. Va. kills 476 by 1935 (this
    event contributed to the passage of the
    Walsh-Healey Act of 1936).
  • 1935 Social Security Act included provisions
    (Title III) for the USPHS to make grants-in-aid
    for I.H. research that established a corps of
    expertise and funded state I.H. programs (which
    were largely only "advisory," i.e., without
    compliance authority).
  • 1935 The Wagner Act (aka the National Labor
    Relations Act or the NLRA) guaranteed to
    employees the right to form labor organizations
    (unions), and to bargain collectively created
    the National Labor Relations Board to regulate
    unfair labor practices by employers.
  • 1936 The Walsh-Healey Act established labor
    safety and health requirements for government
    contractors. Standards were to be (and still are)
    adopted as recommended by government "advisors."
  • 1936 A group of governmental industrial
    hygienists organized a "conference" for health
    matters that became the ACGIH.
  • 1937 Division of Industrial Hygiene within the
    National Institute of Health, USPHS.

25
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • General historical timeline since the American
    Industrial Revolution
  • 1938 ACGIH - the American Conference of
    Governmental Industrial Hygienists initially was
    formed to develop and maintain the TLV list (for
    use in the Walsh-Healey Act) ACGIH is still
    largely limited to government and university
    IHs.
  • 1939 AIHA - the American Industrial Hygiene
    Association formed a professional society open
    to all practitioners (but in practical terms and
    demography is industry dominated).
  • 1942 The American Association of Industrial
    Nurses was formed.
  • 1943-44 Consolidation of USPHS laws established a
    Division of Occupational Health.
  • 1947 The Taft-Hartley Act (aka the
    Labor-Management Relations Act of 1947) amended
    the NLRA to put certain restrictions on the
    rights and obligations of labor unions.
  • 1953 Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
    formed and became part of USPHS.
  • 1960 The American Board of Industrial Hygienists
    ABIH formed as a non- governmentally recognized
    certification body. CIHs automatically became a
    member of the Academy of IH (which is now a
    sort-of super committee within AIHA).
  • 1966 Metal and Nonmetallic Mine Safety Act was
    passed.

26
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • General historical timeline since the American
    Industrial Revolution
  • 1968 Farmington W.Va. coal mine explosion and
    fire kills over 80 miners.
  • 1969 Coal Mine Safety and Health Law was passed
    initially administered by Bureau of Mines.
  • 1970 Williams-Steiger Act, PL 91-596, "The
    Occupational Safety and Health Act" created OSHA
    and used standards used from the Walsh-Healy Act
    (1968 TLVs)
  • 1970 Williams-Steiger Act, aka PL 91-596 or The
    Occupational Safety and Health Act creates NIOSH
    from the Division of IH of the USPHS
  • 1973 MESA (Mining Enforcement and Safety
    Administration) formed within Dept. of Interior.
  • 1976 Toxic Substances Control Act and Resource
    Conservation and Recovery Act admin. by EPA.
  • 1977 MESA became MSHA.
  • 1979 Department of Health and Human Services
    formed (incl. the USPHS).
  • 1980 Comprehensive Environmental Response,
    Compensation, and Liability Act.

27
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • The history of occupational health and safety can
    be summarized as
  • sporadic but mostly active in the last half of
    the 20th Century, spurred
  • on by increasing rates of change of
  • industrial processes and agents that could create
    adverse effects
  • health surveillance and medical technologies to
    detect, to associate, and in some cases to treat
    adverse health effects
  • social settings, expectations, and organizations
    (political, legal, and unions) first strive for
    wages and the organizations' right to exist, then
    to gain access to medical services for workers,
    and most recently for health protection services
  • governmental regulations (largely transient,
    sporadic, and in response to political pressures)
    that addressed child labor protection, birth
    certificates, workers compensation, union
    protections, social security, and eventually
    comprehensive worker health and safety
    protection
  • labor management relations confluence based on
    increased investment in training, negotiations on
    health and safety, joint labor management
    committees on health and safety, and even
    community right-to-know.

28
A History of Occupational Health and Safety
  • General historical references
  • C. Lenz, Occupational Medicine Principles
    Practical Applications "Industrial Health and
    Medical Programs USPHS Pub. No. 15, Sep. 1950.
    or see M.C. Klem, M.F. McKiever, and W.J. Lear
    Industrial Health Programs. Public Health
    Service Publ. No. 15, Sep. 1950.
  • J. Corn, Historical Aspects of Industrial Hygiene
    - I Changing Attitudes Toward Occupational
    Health. AIHAJ. 39695-699 (1978).
  • M. Corn The Progression of Industrial Hygiene.
    Appl. Indr. Hyg. 4(6)153-157, 1989.
  • D. Rhodes and C. Blanton Alice Hamilton
    Occupational Safety and Health Legend.
    Professional Safety. 35(8)11-15, 1990.
  • B.W. Mintz Disorder and Early Sorrow in the OSHA
    Program. Am.Indr.Hyg.Assoc. 50(2)A96-A108, 1989.
  • R.J. Sherwood Agricola Revisited Identification
    and Control of Hazards in the 16th Century. Part
    I Am.Indr.Hyg.Assoc. 55(2)118-124, 1994 Part
    II Am.Indr.Hyg.Assoc. 55(3)202-205, 1994 Part
    IIII Am.Indr.Hyg.Assoc. 55(4)305-307, 1994.
  • See the history of NLRA at http//encarta.msn.com/
    index/conciseindex/54/05454000.htm .
Write a Comment
User Comments (0)
About PowerShow.com