Bullying and Antisocial Behavior: Analysis of Bullying Research and Recommended Practices

1
Bullying and Antisocial BehaviorAnalysis of
Bullying Research and Recommended Practices

• Richard P. West Ph.D.
• Executive Director
• Center for the School of the Future
• Utah State University

2
What Problems do We Face in Todays Schools

• Problem behavior in schools is increasing in
  frequency and intensity.
• School-wide discipline systems are unclear and
  inconsistently implemented.
• Educators rely on reactive and crisis management
  interventions to solve chronic behavior problems.
• Teachers are being asked to do more with less,
  and to teach when students display severe problem
  behavior.
• Students have limited structured opportunities to
  learn social skills and to receive feedback on
  their use of these social skills.
• Alternative placements are becoming more
  difficult to find.

Sugai, 1997
3
THE GOOD OLD DAYS?

• The world is too big for us. Too much is going
  on. Too many crimes, too much violence and
  excitement. Try as you will, you get behind in
  the race in spite of yourself. It is an
  incessant strain to keep pace, and still you lose
  ground. Science empties its discoveries on you
  so fast you stagger beneath them in hopeless
  bewilderment. Everything is high-pressure. Human
  nature cant endure much more.
• Editorial in the Atlantic Journal, June 16, 1833.

4
Bullying

• Bullying occurs when a student or group of
  students targets an individual repeatedly over
  time, using physical or psychological aggression
  to dominate the victim
• (Hoover Oliver, 1996 Rigby, 1995 USDOE, 1998)

Bullying can contribute to an environment of fear
and intimidation in schools (Arnette Walsleben,
1998 Ericson, 2001)
5
BULLYING Key Features

• Intent to harm
• Repeated harmful acts
• Power imbalance between bully and victims

6
What Does it Look Like?

• Physical aggression
• (e.g. fighting, etc.)
• Relational aggression
• (e.g. social exclusion, injuring the reputation
  of another person)
• Verbal harassment or intimidation
• (e.g. threats, psychological intimidation)
• Cyber-bullying
• (e.g. insulting websites, embarrassing photos
  posted online, text messages)

7
Some Data

• 160,000 students miss school every day due to
  fear of attack or intimidation by a bully (Fried
  Fried, 1996)
• Approximately 20 percent of students report being
  scared throughout much of the school day
  (Garrity, et al., 1997)
• 60 of boys who were bullies in middle school had
  at least one criminal conviction by the age of 24
  (Olweus, 1993)
• Bullying is the best predictor of adult
  criminality (Silvernail, Thompson, Yang, Kopp,
  2000)

8
Who are the Bullies?

• Poorer academic skills and grades
• Lacking in empathy
• Cognitive distortions
• Belief that aggression solves problems
• Increased risk for substance abuse later
  criminal behavior
• Increasingly unpopular with peers as they get
  older
• Come from coercive/aggressive homes
• Inconsistent ineffective discipline
• Physically larger, especially in early grades

9
Who are the Victims?

• Physically smaller or weaker
• Anxious, fearful, insecure, depressed, poor
  self-esteem
• School avoidance, including dropping out
• More likely to bring weapons to school for revenge

10
VIOLENCE
A disturbing element of some high profile school
shootings in the United States during the past
few years has been that some of these youthful
shooters were repeat victims of bullying and peer
harassment, were unpopular, and they ultimately
went on a shooting spree as a way of exacting
revenge. Merrell, Gueldner, Ross, Isava (in
press) School Psychology Quarterly
11
School Bullying

• Bullying is one form of violence that seems to
  have increased in recent years, although it is
  not clear if the increase reflects more incidents
  of bullying at school or perhaps greater
  aware-ness of bullying as a problem.

US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice
Statistics, School Crime Supplement to the
National Crime Victimization Survey, Indicators
of School Crime and Safety, 2003, NCES
12
Rates of Bullying and Other School Discipline
Problems

• Student bullying is one of the most frequently
  reported discipline problems at school 26 of
  elementary schools, 43 of middle schools, and
  25 of high schools reported problems with
  bullying in 1999-2000

US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice
Statistics, School Crime Supplement to the
National Crime Victimization Survey, Indicators
of School Crime and Safety, 2003, NCES
13
Middle Schools

• Bullying occurs at all ages, but tends to peak
  during the middle school years
• Hazler, 1996 Rios-Ellis, Bellamy, Shoji, 2000

14
Bullying Recent Trends

• In recent years, fewer than 1 in 10 students
  reported they had been bullied at school in last
  6 months.
• Although percentages increased from 1999 (5) to
  2001 (8), no differences were detected between
  2001 and 2003

NOTE In the 1999 survey, at school was defined
as in the school building, on the school grounds,
or on a school bus. In the 2001 and 2003
surveys, at school was defined as in the school
building, on school property, on a school bus, or
going to and from school. See appendix A for
more information. SOURCE U.S. Department of
Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, School
Crime Supplement (SCS) to the National Crime
Victimization Survey, 199, 2001, and 2003.
15
Recent Data Further Analysis

• White students were more likely than Hispanic
  students to report being bullied (8 to 6)
• Grade level is inversely related to bullying
• Public school students more likely to be bullied
  than private

NOTE At School was defined as in the school
building, on school property, on a school bus, or
going to and from school. SOURCE U.S.
Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice
Statistics, School Crime Supplement (SCS) to the
National Crime Victimization Survey, 2003.
16
Boys vs. Girls

• Both boys and girls bully some research
  indicates that boys bully more often, but this
  may have to do with how bullying is defined.
• Boys tend to use more physical aggression while
  bullying by girls often takes the form of teasing
  and social exclusion (Hoover Oliver, 1996)

17
Are Bullying Prevention and Intervention Programs
Effective?

• Although anti-bullying interventions appear to
  be useful in increasing awareness, knowledge, and
  self-perceived competency in dealing with
  bullying, it should not be expected that these
  interventions will dramatically impact the
  incidence of actual bullying and victimization
  behaviors, or that they will positively impact
  even a majority of the targeted outcomes. In
  fact, our evidence indicates that the majority of
  targeted outcomes in school bullying
  interverventions may not be significantly
  impacted, either positively or negatively.
• Merrell, Gueldner, Ross, Isava (in press)
  School Psychology Quarterly

18
Bullying is a symptom of a much larger problem of
antisocial behavior
19
Antisocial Behavior

• Recurrent violations of socially prescribed
  patterns of behavior
• Hostility, aggression, defiance, willingness to
  violate rules
• Aversive to others
• Deviation from accepted rules and expected
  standards
• Deviance across a range of settings

20
Antisocial Behavior Facts and Findings

• Involves more boys than girls
• Identified at 3 or 4 years of age
• Early antisocial behavior predicts adolescent
  delinquency
• Antisocial behavior persisting beyond third grade
  is chronic problem
• Antisocial children are at risk for long term
  problems
• 70 of youth arrested within 3 yrs. of leaving
  school

21
Index crimes include murder, rape, robbery,
aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, motor
vehicle theft, and arson. Utah's total index
crime rate in 2004 was 4,322, a 4.1 decrease
over the 2003 rate of 4,506. ??Utah's rate has
paralleled the national rate over the past 40
years. In 2001, Utah's rate was marginally higher
than the national rate, a gap that is widening
through 2003 and 2004. Utah's higher than average
larceny rate, which accounts for nearly
three-quarters of the total index crime rate,
drives our total rate higher than the national
rate.
22
Common Individual and System Responses to
Problem Behavior

• Clamp down on rule violators
• Extend continuum of aversive consequences
• Improve consistency of use of punishment
• Establish bottom line
• In-school suspension
• Zero tolerance policies
• Security guards, student uniforms, metal
  detectors, surveillance cameras
• Suspension/Expulsion
• Exclusionary options (e.g. Alternative programs)

23
According to Research, the LEAST EFFECTIVE
responses to problem behavior are

• Counseling
• Psychotherapy
• Punishment (Gottfredson,1997 Lipsey, 1991
  Lipsey Wilson, 1993 Tolan Guerra, 1994)
• Exclusion is the most common response for
  conduct-disordered, juvenile delinquent, and
  behaviorally disordered youth (Lane Murakami,
  1987) but it is largely ineffective.

24
Why Then, Do We Educators, Resource Officers, and
Counselors Employ These Procedures?

• When WE experience aversive situations, we
  select interventions that produce immediate
  (rather than sustained) relief. We tend to focus
  on our concerns, not the students.
• Remove the student.
• Remove ourselves.
• Modify the physical environment.
• Assign responsibility for change to student /or
  others.

25
What results from these responses?

• Punishing problem behaviors without a school-wide
  system of support is associated with increased
• aggression
• vandalism
• truancy
• tardiness
• dropping out (Mayer, 1995 Mayer
  Sulzer-Azaroff, 1991)
• Fosters environments of control
• Occasions reinforces antisocial behavior
• Shifts ownership away from school
• Weakens child-adult relationship
• Weakens relationship between academic social
  behavior programming

26
Gallup survey on work satisfaction

• For Employees
• I know what is expected of me at work.
• I have the materials and equipment I need to do
  my job right.
• In the last seven days, I have received
  recognition or praise for doing good work.
• My supervisor or someone at work, seems to care
  about me as a person.
• There is someone at work who encourages my
  development.
• The mission/purpose of my company makes me feel
  my job is important.

• What if We Reword it for Students
• I know what is expected of me at school.
• I have the academic and social skills I need to
  succeed.
• At school today, I received recognition or praise
  for doing good work or behaving appropriately.
• My teacher or someone at school seems to care
  about me as a person.
• There is someone at school who encourages my
  development.
• The mission/purpose of the school makes my effort
  seem important.

What the Worlds Greatest Managers Do
Differently -- Buckingham Coffman 2002,
GallupInterviews with 1 million workers, 80,000
managers, in 400 companies.
27
According to Research, the MOST EFFECTIVE
responses to problem behavior are

• Social skills training
• Academic and curricular restructuring
• Behavioral interventions(Gottfredson, 1997
  Lipsey, 1991, 1992 Lipsey Wilson, 1993 Tolan
  Guerra, 1994)

28
High Risk
5 of Students
Moderate Risk
15 of Students
Low Risk
80 of Students
Schimmer Sugai, Nov. 2003
29
Academic Success/Social Competence
Specialized Individualized Systems for Students
with High-Risk Behavior
1-5
5-10
Specialized Group Systems for Students with
At-Risk Behavior
80-90
Schimmer Sugai, Nov. 2003
30
Office Referrals
14 per day
11 per day
10 per day
As of March 24th
31
Level 1 Violations by Individuals
32
Level 2 Violations by Individuals
33
Total Level 1 Violations by Groups
59
41
25
6
At-Risk students, in this case, are identified as
having 5 or more violations
34
Level 1 Violations by At-Risk Groups
35
Violations by Location
36
Categories of Risk and Protective Factors

1. Individual
2. Peer
3. Family
4. Community
5. School

37
Individual Risk Factors

• Alienation and Rebelliousness
• Favorable Attitudes Toward the Problem Behavior
• Early Initiation of the Problem Behavior
• Certain Physical, Emotional or Personality Traits
• Lack of Social Competence

38
Individual Protective Factors

• Sense Of Well-Being/Self Confidence
• Negative Attitudes Toward Problem Behavior
• Positive Future Plans
• Social Competence

39
Peer Risk Factors

• Friends Who Engage in the Problem Behavior
• Less Involved in Recreational, Social and
  Cultural Activities

40
Peer Protective Factors

• Bonding To Pro-Social Culture
• Youth Involvement In Alternative Activities

41
Family Risk Factors

• Family History With Problem Behavior
• Family Management Problems
• Family Conflict
• Favorable Parental Attitudes or Involvement in
  Problem Behavior
• Family Members Don't Spend Much Time Together
• Lack Of Parental Supervision
• Lack Of Clear Expectations, Limits And
  Consequences

42
Family Protective Factors

• Close Family Relationships
• Consistency Of Parenting
• Copes With Stress In A Positive Way
• Education Is Valued, Encouraged, And Parents Are
  Involved
• Share Family Responsibilities, Including Chores
  And Decision Making
• Family Members Are Nurturing And Support Each
  Other
• Clear Expectations, Limits And Consequences

43
Community Risk Factors

• Alcohol And Other Drugs Readily Available
• Laws And Ordinances Are Unclear Or Inconsistently
  Enforced
• Norms Are Unclear
• Residents Feel Little Sense Of "Connection" To
  Community
• Neighborhood Disorganization
• High Mobility
• Extreme Economic Deprivation
• Lack Of Strong Social Institutions
• Lack Of Monitoring Youths' Activities
• Inadequate Media Portrayals

44
Community Protective Factors

• Community Service Opportunities Available For
  Youth
• Laws And Ordinances Are Consistently Enforced
• Informal Social Control
• Opportunities Exist For Community Involvement
• Positive Relationships with Other Adults
  Encouraged
• Strong Religious or Social Composition
• Resources (Housing, Healthcare, Childcare, Jobs,
  Recreation, Etc.) Are Available
• Neighbors Share Responsibility for Monitoring
  Youth

45
School Risk Factors

• Lack Of Clear Expectations, Both Academic And
  Behavioral
• Lack Of Commitment Or Sense Of Belonging At
  School
• Academic Failure
• Parents And Community Members Not Actively
  Involved

46
School Protective Factors

• Communicates High Academic And Behavioral
  Expectations
• Encourages Goal-Setting, Academic Achievement And
  Positive Social Development
• Positive Attitudes Toward School
• Fosters Active Involvement Of Students, Parents
  And Community Members

47
Indicators of School Quality
48
Things We Can Change Combine with Things We
Cant Change

Alterable Variables
Unalterable Variables
to Produce Academic Achievement and Social
Competence
49
Web of Causation for Academic Achievement
Instruction
Academic Achievement
50
Web of Causation for Social Competence
Punishment
Social Competence
51
Web of Causation for Myocardial Infarction (Heart
Attacks)
Taken from Friedman, G. D. (1994). Primer of
Epidemiology (5th Ed.). New York McGraw-Hill,
p.4.
Natural selection of metabolic adaptation to
starvation
Industrial society
Social pressures
Dietary excesses in saturated fat,
cholesterol, calories, salt
Personality emotional stress
Lack of exercise
Hereditary factors
Cigarette smoking
Obesity
Coronary artery distribution
Diabetes or carbohydrate intolerance
Increased catecholamines
Thrombotic tendency
Hyperlipidemia
Hypertension
Significant coronary atherosclerosis
Deficiency in collateral circulation
Myocardial susceptibility
Coronaryocclusion
The authors note that Despite the apparent
complexity of this diagram, it is undoubtedly
an oversimplification and will certainly be
modified by further study. (p. 5).
Myocardial infarction
52
The Indicators of School Quality

• Parent Support
• Teacher Excellence
• Instructional Quality
• School Leadership
• Student Commitment
• School Safety
• Resource Management

53
Areas of Risk

1. Home Language Is English the primary language
   spoken at home?
2. Neighborhood Stability Have you moved more than
   once in the past three years?
3. Peer Associations Do you generally approve of
   your childs closest friends?
4. Family Bonding Do your neighbors generally
   monitor their childrens activities?
5. Community Affiliation Do you regularly attend
   community, social, or religious meetings?
6. Academic Status Do you have a high school
   diploma/GED?
7. Economic Status Do you have Internet access at
   home?

54
ISQ and Academic Achievement

• The variables measured by ISQ account for more
  than 80 of the variance of academic achievement
  scores
• Even when risk is removed from the equation,
  the correlations between ISQ variables and
  achievement are statistically significant

55
Hierarchy of Risk

• Economic Status
• Community Affiliation
• Family Bonding
• Neighborhood Stability
• Academic Status
• Home Language
• Peer Associations

56
Relationship between Risk and Academic
Achievement (Indicators of School Quality- ISQ)
57

• Recent research has shown that the risk of youth
  developing patterns of various types of
  antisocial behavior, including the use of alcohol
  and other drugs, aggressive and violent behavior,
  and gang activity, can be lessened by developing
  certain protective assets and skills.
• These include social and self-management skills,
  academic proficiency including reading, and
  improved relationships with family members and
  school personnel (Gardner Resnick, 1996
  Hawkins Catalano, 1992 Schorr, 1988 West,
  Young, Mitchem Calderella, 1998).

58
Parent Support

1. Student achievement related to parent support is
   not limited to the early years, but is
   significant at all ages and grade levels.
2. Children of involved parents achieve more,
   regardless of socioeconomic status, ethnic/racial
   background, or the parents education level.
3. Children of involved parents have higher grades,
   test scores and better attendance, and they are
   more likely to graduate from high school and have
   greater enrollments in post-secondary education.

59
Parent Support

1. When it comes to student behavior, children of
   involved parents exhibit more positive attitudes
   and behavior.
2. Children of involved parents have fewer instances
   of alcohol use, violence, and antisocial behavior.

60
Nine Contextual Factors that Contribute to
Punitive School Environments and Promote
Antisocial Behavior

• Low student involvement in school activities
• Unclear rules for student deportment
• Weak or inconsistent administrative support
• Student academic failure
• Student deficiency in social personal
  management skills
• Problems discriminating prosocial antisocial
  behavior
• Consequences delivered inconsistently
• Inadvertent reinforcement of antisocial behavior
• Over reliance on punitive methods of control
  (Mayer, 1995 Similar to home-based contextual
  factors noted by Loeber, Stouthammer-Loeber
  Green, 1987 and Reid Patterson, 1991)

61
Assessing School Conditions and Actions

• Inspect evidences
• Be specific
• Look carefully, review relevant history
• Be honest
• Compile evidences
• Assign rating (can be done in a group)
• Generally meet the standard (no
  contra-evidences or only 1 or 2 at most)
• Occasionally meet the standard (several
  contra-evidences)
• Rarely meet the standard (occasional evidences)

62
Checklist of Contextual Factors
Clear Communication of Expectations for
Performance

1. A well-written set of behavioral standards and
   expectations exists at this school
2. The set of expectations is short (generally from
   5 to 7 items)
3. Students were involved in the development,
   refinement, and communication of the standards of
   behavior
4. The behavioral expectations are statements of how
   to behave well, rather than what not to do
5. Behavioral expectations are posted prominently
   throughout the school
6. Behavioral expectations are emphasized in each
   classroom (e.g. explicitly taught, reminded, and
   encouraged)
7. Students are able to remember and repeat
   statements of behavioral expectations

Adapted from G. Roy Mayer (2001) California
State University,Los Angeles
63
Checklist of Contextual Factors
Relationships and Bonding

1. Strong administrative support for staff exists
   (e.g. good teaching is recognized, faculty
   requests are acted upon promptly)
2. Strong staff support for one another exists (e.g.
   staff confer with one another regarding
   instruction and discipline)
3. Staff greet and help students feel welcome in the
   classroom
4. Staff interact with and show interest in students
   in various settings
5. Staff have many more positive than negative
   interactions with students
6. Students generally comply willingly with staff
   requests and instructions
7. Students tend to hang around staff, engaging in
   conversations, etc.
8. Staff are really well acquainted with each and
   every student, and are familiar with students
   personal characteristics, attributes, and
   challenges

Adapted from G. Roy Mayer (2001) California
State University,Los Angeles
64
Checklist of Contextual Factors
Skill-Building Emphasis Academic, Social, and
Self-Management Skills

1. The school assumes responsibility for learning of
   academic skills
2. Curriculum in all areas is organized to emphasize
   active rather than passive responding, with many
   tailored opportunities for all students to
   respond
3. Academic assignments are adjusted to students
   functional levels
4. Sufficient additional academic support is
   provided to struggling students
5. The school assumes responsibility for learning of
   social skills
6. Social skills are identified and taught
   effectively emphasizing fluency and generalized
   performance in natural settings
7. Failure to meet high expectations of performance
   is followed by individual intensive teaching
   rather than punishment
8. Students receive explicit instruction and support
   in self-management

Adapted from G. Roy Mayer (2001) California State
University,Los Angeles
65
Checklist of Contextual Factors
Recognition of Appropriate Behavior

1. Recognition is provided by the administration to
   students who meet the behavioral expectations
2. Recognition is provided by classroom teachers to
   students who meet the behavioral expectations
3. All students receive frequent and appropriate
   recognition for their accomplishments and efforts
   to meet high standards of good behavior
4. At-Risk students receive more frequent and
   personalized (tailored) recognition for their
   efforts to meet high standards and expectations
   (in both academic and deportment)
5. Evidences exist in this school of efforts to pay
   more attention to good behavior and success than
   to problem behavior and mistakes

Adapted from G. Roy Mayer (2001), California
State University,Los Angeles
66
CONTEXTUAL FACTORS

• It appears that changing these identified
  contextual factors not only can help prevent
  antisocial behavior, but also can help to create
  an environment more conducive to learning

G. Roy Mayer (2001) California State
University,Los Angeles
67
Achieving the Support of Parents

• Effective Professional Communication
• Communication to families is timely
• Communication to families is culturally sensitive
• Communication to families is professional

68
Achieving the Support of Parents

• Professional Atmosphere at School
• School staff members project a positive school
  image
• Visitors to the school know where to go and with
  whom to initiate contact
• Parent/Teacher conferences respect the parents
• Extracurricular events are well-managed and safe
• Transportation activities are well supervised

69
Achieving the Support of Parents

• Supporting Parents as First Educators in the Home
• Parents know what is expected of them as first
  educators in the home
• Parents are provided resources to succeed as
  educational role models
• Parents are rewarded for their support

70
Positive Behavior Support(PBS)

• Positive behavior support is an approach for
  teaching children appropriate behavior and
  providing the supports necessary to sustain that
  behavior.

71
PBS is

• Not a specific practice or curriculumits
  general approach to preventing problem behavior.
• Not limited to any particular group of
  studentsits for all students.
• Not newits based on long history of behavioral
  practices and effective instructional design and
  strategies.

72
Four principles or components of our version of
PBS

1. Communicate high academic and behavioral
   expectations to students
2. Encourage positive relationships with adults
3. Emphasize goal-setting, academic achievement and
   positive social development with a teaching
   emphasis (with accompanying low tolerances for
   mistakes and misbehavior)
4. Reinforce and strengthen appropriate behavior

73
Prevention Plus Elements
Focus
Universal Targeted
All Students At Risk
Rules Values Common Language
Instructions Individual Negotiations Contracts
Clear Communication of Behavioral Expectations
System-wide Advisement Extra-Curricular Programs
Mentoring Relationship-building
Relationships and Bonding

• Skill-Building Emphasis
• Academic Skills
• Social Skills
• Self-management Skills

Expectations Modeling Practice Fluency Evaluation
Planned And Opportunistic Teaching
Praise Notes/Boards Recognition Programs Good
Behavior Game
Recognition for Appropriate Behavior
Instructive Praise
74
Social Skills Teaching Tactics
75
Four-Year Study in Two High-Risk Middle Schools

• Students made unexpectedly large gains in
  academic achievement (nearly one-half standard
  deviation greater than average improvement).
• Students recorded an average improvement of more
  than one standard deviation on teacher ratings of
  social competence.
• Teachers rated students as having achieved
  significant reductions in antisocial behavior.
• Students noted significant improvements in their
  own behavior.
• Fights and suspensions were reduced by 69.
• Safe school violations were reduced by 77.
• Court referrals were reduced by 84.
• Gang-related activities were reduced by 81.
• (West, Young, Mitchem Calderella, 1998)

76
The Matching LawBehavior Occurs When
HIGH
Behavior Occurs and is Sustained When Response
Effort and Reward are in Balance or MATCHED
No behavior OR Behavior Quickly
Extinguishes (Acquisition Problem)
Cost of Responding What We GIVE
Satiation, Rewards lose Value, and Responding is
not Durable (Production Problem)
LOW
HIGH
Reward for Responding What We GET
LOW
77
The Horse WhispererIve heard you help people
with horse problems

• Truth is, I help horses with people problems

Tom Booker, The Horse Whisperer 1998
78
HORSE SENSE?

• Many teachers and administrators believe their
  schools need help with student behavior problems.
  
• Truth is, our students need help with school
  problems.