SCIENCE ADMINISTRATION

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SCIENCE ADMINISTRATION LECTURE 32 PARADIGM OF
MECHANISM CHANGE! QUANTUM MECHANICS ILLUSTRAT
ION QUANTUM MODEL OF THE ATOM FREDERICK
BETZ PORTLAND STATE UNIVERSITY
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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE ADMINISTRATION
PROCESS OF STATE OF KNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE
TECHNICAL SCIENTIFIC
SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS METHOD
PARADIGMS (EPISTEMOLOGY) (ONTOLOGY)
MANAGEMENT SCIENCE
SCIENCE OPERATIONS ADMINISTRATION
APPLICATION (ORGANIZATION) (TECHNOLOGY)
SCIENCE ADMINISTRATORS MUST UNDERSTAND SCIENCE
WITHOUT BECOMING EXPERTS IN A SCIENTIFIC
FIELD. THE WAY TO DO THIS IS THROUGH
UNDERSTANDING SCIENTIFIC PARADIGMS INTELLECTUAL
FRAMEWORKS OF SCIENCE.
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SCIENCE DISCIPLINES CONSTRUCT THEORY WITHIN
GENERAL FRAMEWORKS OF PARADIGMS SCIENTIFIC
META-THEORIES.
DISCIPLINE
THEORY
META-THEORY (SCIENTIFIC PARADIGM)
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DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON AND FIRST MODEL OF AN
ATOM J.J. THOMSON In 1897 J. J. Thomson at the
Cavendish Laboratory of Cambridge University
demonstrated that the electron was a subatomic
particle (for which he was awarded the Nobel
Prize in physics in 1906). J. J. Thomson
(1865-1940) was born in Manchester, England.
Later he attended Cambridge University, obtaining
a masters degree in 1883. He became a professor
at Cambridge the following year. He studied
the then new cathode tube in which rays passed
through the gas of the tube when electrical
voltages were placed across each end of the tube.
He demonstrated that these rays were currents
of electricity made up of a flow of particles,
which he called electrons.
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Thomson then suggested that the atom was made
up of a combination of electrons and protons
(called the Plum pudding model, with electrons
embedded like plums in a positive pudding).
Ideas in science can occur far earlier in
philosophy. But they still are only
philosophical ideas and not scientific ideas.
For example in ancient philosophy, the idea of
an atom was proposed by a pre-Socratic
philosopher, Democritus (460-370 BC). He was
born in Thrace and believed all matter is made up
of small, permanent units which he called
atomon, or 'indivisable elements'. But the
Newtonian paradigm of mechanism includes spatial
explanation. So Thomson aimed at the
divisability of atoms into electrons and a
positive pudding.
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THE GEIGER-MARSDEN EXPERIMENT THE FIRST
SCIENTIFIC MODELING OF THE ATOM RESEARCH PROJECT
MANAGEMENT BY ERNEST RUTHERFORD
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) was born in New
Zealand. he studied at Nelson College and
Canterbury College. In 1883, he graduated with
degrees of BA, MA, and BSc. He stayed on for two
years to do research in electric technology.
In 1885, he went to England for graduate study
at the Cavendish Laboratory of the University of
Cambridge. He investigated radioactivity and
was able to distinguish between alpha, beta, and
gamma rays in the radioactive phenomena of atoms.
He introduced the terms of 'alpha' and 'beta'
radiation.
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RUTHERFORD DISTINGUISHED RADIOACTIVE DECAY RAYS
INTO ALPHA RAYS, BETA RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS Alpha
rays are stream of alpha particles from
radioactive decay in atoms. Beta rays are
streams of electrons. Gamma rays are
high-energy electromagnetic wave-particles,
photons.
Alpha rays are streams of helium nuclei, with two
protons and two neutrons. They originate from the
radioactive decay of some elements (such as
radium or uranium). A radioactive nucleus of an
atom such as radium can decay by ejecting an
alpha particle. The helium nucleus (alpha
particle ) of two protons and two neurons are
bound together by the strong nuclear force of
gluons which attract together the quarks that
make up the protons and neutrons strong nuclear
force.
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Rutherford had demonstrated that radioactivity
was the spontaneous disintegration of atoms,
determining that different atoms had different
times of a constant rate-of-decay, which he
called the half-life of a radioactive atom.
His work was rewarded with a Noble Prize in
physics in 1908. In 1907, Rutherford moved back
to England as the chair of physics at the
University of Manchester. As chair, Rutherford
was given space by the University and a budget to
run a physics research laboratory. There he
would conceive and lead a team of researchers to
perform the famous experiment on the structure of
the atom.
Hans Geiger (1882-1945) was born in Germany and
earned his doctorate in physics in 1906 at the
University Erlangen. In 1907, he went to England
to work for Rutherford and, with Rutherford and
with him invented the Geiger counter. Geiger
would return to Germany, becoming head of the
Physical-Technical Reichsanstalt in Berlin and
then a professor at the University of Keil in
1925. During World War II, he would be part of
the German group attempting to make an atomic
bomb during World War II. Ernest Marsden
(1889-1970) was born in England and enrolled in
the University of Manchester as an undergraduate.
In Rutherfords lab, he worked under Geiger,
participating in the famous experiment as an
undergraduate. Later in 1914, Marsden would move
to Victoria University in New Zealand. He would
serve in World War I as a Royal Engineer and then
return to New Zealand to found New Zealands
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
in 1924.
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In 1909 in Rutherfords lab, Geiger and Marsden
bombarded a thin gold foil with alpha particles.
The experiment was performed in a darkened room
under a low-powered microscope. Geiger and
Marsden watched for tiny flashes of light as the
scattered particles struck a zinc sulfide
scintillant screen. Most of the particles
penetrated the foils, passing through with some
absorbed in the foil. Rutherford had expected
that most alpha particles would pass through the
foil, some slightly deflected. And most did.
But once in about 8000 times, the alpha
particles bounced back from the foil toward the
source as if these particles had hit a hard
object in the foil! This phenomenum was called
a back-scatter. Back-scattering in classical
physics can occur when one hard object hits
another hard object and scatters backwards.
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Such backscattering could not be explained by
Thompsons plum pudding model of the atom. In
the plum pudding model, the alpha particles
would be absorbed by the pudding of the positive
charges, and the electrons (raisins in the
pudding) were smaller than the alpha particles
and too small to back scatter the much heavier
alpha particles. So when alpha particle did hit
a small, heavy and hard nucleus of the gold atom,
it would backscatter. That meant that the atom
must have hit a small, heavy, and hard nucleus at
its core with electrons surrounding the core.
In 1911, Rutherford published his analysis of
the alpha scattering as the Rutherford model of
the atom. His model looked like the model of the
solar system, with a core atomic nucleus (like
the sun) orbited by electrons (like planets).
The atom was composed of a small atomic nucleus
surrounded by a cloud of electrons in orbits.
Like the solar system, the atom was mostly space.
Rutherford used as a metaphor that earlier
(1638) Copernican model of the solar system
CLASSICAL SOLAR ANALOGY FOR A MODEL OF A
HYDROGEN ATOM
. .
Orbiting Electron
Hydrogen Nucleus Composed of a Proton and Neutron
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Of course, Rutherford did not believe such an
analogy of the atomic system to the solar system
possible could be true because of the theory of
electromagnetism. Because of electromagnetic
theory, a real orbiting electron as a particle
would radiate electromagnetic energy -- thereby
losing velocity and eventually collapsing into
the nucleus. Electromagnetic theory predicted
that accelerating electrons radiate energy. And
experiment had shown this was true. And
constantly changing directions in an orbit is a
form of acceleration -- change of velocity as the
direction of the velocity changes. Rutherford
knew that the spatial model of an atom with
electrons far out circling an nucleus was
experimentally correct. But how was it
physically possible? He knew that a new kind of
model of the atom was needed. And later one of
his assistants-to-be, Niels Bohr, would soon
devise an answer a quantum atom.
NATURE WOULD REQUIRE A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE
PARADIGM OF MECHANISM
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Niels Bohr (1885-1962) was to solve the issue of
how electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom. Bohr
was born in Denmark. As a young man he went to
England as an undergraduate at Trinity College,
Cambridge. He returned to Denmark and received a
doctorate from Copenhagen University in 1911.
He returned to England did a post doctoral
research under Ernest Rutherford in the
University of Manchester. There Bohr learned
of Rutherfords experiments and devoted himself
to theoretically modeling the structure of the
atom. In 1913, Bohr published his model of the
atom.
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EXPERIMENTAL BASIS RYDBERG SPECTRAL LINES OF
THE HYDROGEN ATOM
Photons are the quantum particles of an
electromagnetic field. When light of a proper
frequency is shown on an atom, a photon of the
light can be absorbed by one of the atoms
orbiting electrons, jumping that electron into a
higher orbit. Then subsequently that electron
can emit the same frequency proton and fall back
into its lower orbit. This is the phenomena of
light absorption and emission by atoms.
Experimental studies on hydrogen gas were
performed by Heinrich Rubens (1865-1922). The
mathematical study of the experiments on light
emission by the hydrogen atom was done by Johann
Balmer in 1885. He devised an analytical formula
summarizing the pattern of wavelengths found in
the spectral lines of lines of hydrogen --
Balmer's formula. In 1890, Rydberg published an
analytical formula which described the pattern of
wavelengths occuring in the spectral emission of
light from heated alkali metals. Also, Rydberg
showed that the spectral lines from hydrogen
(Balmer's formula) was a special case of the more
general alkali metal emission pattern.
Balmer
Rydberg
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Balmer spectral lines from a deuterium lamp.
Hydrogen has one proton and one electron.
Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen with one
proton plus one neutron in its nucleus and one
electron circling the nucleus. The two spectral
lines Db and Da are photons emitted in the
transition of the electron from a higher energy
orbit to a lower energy orbit.
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Bohr understood that the explanation of
Balmer-Rydberg spectral formula for hydrogen
would be to show how jumps from higher to lower
energetic orbits around the atom would emit
photons of light at just the frequencies in the
formula. The emission of a light particle,
photon, occurs in the transition of an electron
from higher to lower orbit. So this is the set
of empirical measurements which Bohr could use to
judge whether or not his atomic model was real.
But for Bohr to construct his model, he had to
make a major conceptual break with Newtonian
mechanics paradigm shift. Bohr and Rutherford
knew something had to be non-classical about the
electron if they were to orbit the nucleus of an
atom because of the classical electromagnetic
radiation by accelerating electrons.
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Niels Bohr (1885-1962) was to solve the issue of
how electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom. Bohr
was born in Denmark. As a young man he went to
England as an undergraduate at Trinity College,
Cambridge. He returned to Denmark and received a
doctorate from Copenhagen University in 1911.
He returned to England did a post doctoral
research under Ernest Rutherford in the
University of Manchester. There Bohr learned of
Rutherfords experiments and devoted himself to
theoretically modeling the structure of the
atom. The new philosophical idea of what is a
fundamental particle at an atomic scale required
new phenomenological ideas (such as matter
waves) along with new mathematical ideas (such
as traveling wave packets). Where did Bohr get
his new philosophical ideas for modeling the atom?
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After Newtons triumph of science in the late
1600s for mechanics and later after Maxwells
triumph of science in the middle 1800s, it seemed
then to contemporary observes that the science of
physics may have completely laid down its
foundations. But this was not to be. The
research of Max Planck would establish the idea
that atoms radiated light in discrete quantized
energy. Max Planck (1858-1947) was born in Kiel,
Germany, and attended the University of Munich in
1874. He focused his research on the mechanical
theory of heat, and in 1894 began his studies of
the physical phenomenon of black body
radiation. An electricity company had asked him
to research how to gain the most light
efficiently from the new light bulbs.
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Then in 1905, four years after Plancks law,
Albert Einstein added to the new quantum idea of
mechanics that the quantization of the gas
molecules oscillations was an example of how
light generally interacted with atomic matter --
traveling as a wave but interacting with matter
as a kind of particle (photon). He wrote that
in another physical phenomena, the photoelectric
effect, the absorption (in contrast to emission)
of light by the electrons of an atom occurred
also as discrete packets (quantum of light) --
photons. Einstein proposed that the energy of
a photon (E) is proportional to its frequency (v)
by Plancks constant (h) E hv.
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Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was born Wurttemberg,
Germany. Einstein graduated with a teaching
diploma from the Swiss Federal Institute in
Zurich, Switzerland in 1901. He looked for a
teaching position. But upon not finding one, he
took a job as an assistant patent examiner in the
Swiss Federal Office for Intellectual Property in
1903. Then in1905, the physics journal ,
Annalen der Physik, published four key papers by
the young Einstein (1) The photoelectric effect
that demonstrated light interacted with electrons
in discrete energy packets (2) Brownian motion
which explained the random paths of particles in
suspended in a liquid as direct evidence of
molecules (3) Special relativity which
postulated the speed of light was a constant in
the universe with the same value as seen by and
observer and implied that the mass of an object
increased as the velocity neared the speed of
light (4) Equivalence of matter and energy in
that mass could be converted into energy at the
quantity Emc2.
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Thus natures answer to Newtons puzzle about the
nature of light, wave or particle, turned out to
both. Light travels as an electromagnetic
wave, according to Maxwells equations. But
when interacting with matter (atoms), light acts
like a particle, transmitting or receiving energy
in discrete bundles (quanta), according to h
E/v. So that Plancks constant h is a minimum
bundle/quantum of energy transmitted between
light and atoms. At a macro-scale in classical
physics, there can be a continuous range of
energy transfers between things (Newtonian
mechanics). But at a micro-scale (atomic
level) there are only discrete transfers of
energy (quanta) between light and atoms (Quantum
mechanics).
THE PARADIGM SHIFT IN PHYSICS FROM CLASSICAL
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS TO QUANTUM MECHANICS WAS
REQUIRED BY A SCALE CHANGE IN PHYSICAL PHENOMENA
FROM MACRO-SCALE TO ATOMIC-SCALE. PARADIGMS
FOLLOW NATURE, AND NATURE DOES NOT FOLLOW
PARADIGMS.
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Now back to the story of Niels Bohr at
Rutherfords laboratory in Cambridge in 1912.
Bohr knew of Plancks quantization of the energy
of radiant light (in 1900) and Einsteins
interpretation of this quantization as particles,
photons, of light. So Bohr knew that light
traveled as wave in motion but interacted with
matter (atoms) as a particle a wave/particle
duality of the nature of light. If the emission
of light by an atom must be quantized, then
perhaps the orbits of electrons must also have
quantum features. And a quantum feature might
explain the stable orbits of electrons in an atom.

• BOHRS MODEL OF THE ATOM
• ELECTRONS TRAVEL IN ORBITS ABOUT THE NUCLEUS WITH
  DISCRETE (QUANTIZED) ORBITS.
• ELECTRONS DO NOT LOSE ENERGY IN THEIR STABLE
  ORBITS.

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BOHRS MODEL The electron in circular orbit is
attracted to the positive nucleus by an
electrostatic attractive force (Fa ke2/r2) with
an potential energy (E ke2/2r ). (Where the
energy E is the integral of the force F acting
over distance r -- or the Force is the
differential of the Energy with respect to
distance r. (Newtons calculus). To remain in
orbit, the attractive force and centrifugal force
must be equal Fa Fg or ke2/r2 mv2/r
or v2 ke2/mr or v (ke2/mr)1/2
Centrifugal Force mv2/r
Velocity v v(ke2/mr)1/2
v
Angular Momentum L mvr
Electron Negatively Charged e-
Centripetal Force ke2/r2
Circular Orbit Of electron Around Nucleus
Potential Energy Epke2/r
Radius r
Nucleus Positive Charged Proton (e)
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What feature of an electron orbit should be
quantized? This was Bohrs puzzle. He made a
great guess. Perhaps it was the angular
momentum? The angular momentum (mvr) is an
essential feature of an orbit. Bohr assumed that
the angular momentum of the electron for a stable
orbit is quantized in units n of Plancks
constant ( mvr nh ) or (r nh/mv), where m
is mass of electron, v is velocity, and r is
radius of orbit and h is Plancks constant. Then
in a quantized orbit r nh/mv or r
nh/m(ke2/mr)1/2 -- ( where v (ke2/mr)1/2
) nh mr(ke2/mr)1/2 or nh (m2r2ke2/mr)1/2
or nh (mrke2)1/2 Squaring both sides gives
n2h2 mrke2, so that r n2h2/mke2 . Bohr
substituted this quantized radius for a stable
orbit into the equation for the potential energy
of the electron in the orbit Eke2/2r. Then
the momentum-quantized orbit has energy E
ke2/2r or E mke2ke2/2n2h2 or E
mk2e4/2h2n2 or E R/n2 Bohr defined the
Rydberg constant R as R mk2m4/2h2 .
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After Bohr defined the Rydberg constant as R
mk2m4/2h2 , he found the calculated value matched
the experimentally-measured value of R, which
Rydberg had analyzed from spectral experiments on
light-emission from the hydrogen atom. Then Bohr
had an equation for the stable orbits of an
electron with quantized angular momentum as
depending upon the Rydberg number and differing
from energy level to energy level by the inverse
square of integer numbers E R/n2 . The
integers n give the different quantum energy
levels of the stable orbits. The energy of the
orbits differ one from another by the inverse of
squared integers 1/n2. When an electron dropped
from a stable higher-energy orbit En1 to a
stable lower-energy orbit En, the difference of
energy the electron could give up to an emitted
photon is En1- E1 R(1/(n1)2 1/n2).
Bohr set this equal to the quantized energy
(hf) of the photon emitted with frequency f
hf R(1/n1)2 1/n2). Thus Bohr had derived the
Rydbergs formula experiment grounding theory.
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Transitions from one energy orbit to a higher
energy orbit (discrete in energy changes)
occurred both when an electron absorbed a photon
or when an electron fell back into the lower
energy orbit by emitting a photon. These
transitions were quantized both as angular
momentum of stable atomic orbits and as packets
of photon energy. In calculating the series of
transitions, Bohrs photon emission spectrum just
matched that experimentally seen in the hydrogen
light emission spectrum. Bohrs atomic theory
just matched experiment!
Bohr had successfully modeled Rutherfords atom.
But to do so, later physicists learned that the
electron (as well as the photon) must have a
wave/particle duality! Classical physics needed
to be added to with quantum physics to explain
nature at both a micro-level and at a smaller
atomic level.
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THE PARADIGM SHIFT IN PHYSICAL MECHANICS WAS
REQUIRED FOR EXTENDING THE MECHANISM PARADIGM
ACROSS THE SPACIAL SCALES OF NATURE.
In the mechanistic paradigm, physical processes
are depicted on different scales, from very, very
small spaces up toward very, very large spaces.
This is the microscopic-to-macroscopic
explanatory strategy of science through special
scale.. In the very smallest space we have to
date, the sub-particle space, the fundamental
particles are made up of smaller particles,
quarks and gluons In the next spatial size up,
the atomic nuclei and orbiting electrons form
atoms. The atom is constructed of
negatively-charged electrons orbiting the
positively-charged nucleus. In the next spatial
size up, molecules are formed from combinations
of atoms that bond together by the exchanging
outer electrons (valant bonding) or sharing outer
electrons (co-valant bonding In the next spatial
size up, atoms or molecules stabilize in liquid
or solid configurations as domains or polymeric
structures. This is the domain-level scale of
space. In the next spatial size up, we find the
microscopic level of the organization of matter
as aggregates or organisms. We humans exist on
a macro scale of space of organism
system. Finally, there are two more scales of
space above this macro-level -- the planetary
and cosmic levels.
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TIME LINE FOR SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS AS QUANTUM
MECHANICS
Theory Paradigm Quantum Mechanics Schroedinger
Jordan Born Heisenberg Dirac 1913-1922
Scientific Events
Scientific Events
Scientific Events
Technology
Technology
Technology

Theory Electromagnetism Maxwell 1864
Experiment Rutherford Atom 1909
Theory Quantum Atom Bohr 1913
Experiment Photoelectric Effect
Theory Quantum Radiation Planck 1901

Theory Photon Einstein 1905
Experiment Thomson Electron 1897
Analysis Spectral Lines Balmer/Rydberg 1890
Method
Method
Method
TIME
Administration / Paradigm
Administration /Paradigm
Administration /Paradigm
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Bohr, Schroedinger, Heisenberg, Born, Dirac,
Jordan
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PHYSICAL THEORY The paradigm of mechanism makes
modern physical theory possible. Physical theory
allows all physical morphologies of any
technology to be represented as mechanisms and
enable manipulations of nature by the technology
to be predictable. In the paradigm of
mechanism, a generic technology strategy for the
physical aspects of all technologies can be
devised as a scaling strategy -- improve
technology by better understanding nature at a
smaller or greater scale. Physical phenomenon
at one spatial scale can be explained by physical
mechanisms at a smaller spatial scale. A generic
technology strategy for improving any physical
technology is to understand nature mechanically
at a smaller scale. The scientific paradigm of
mechanism provides the intellectual perspective
(framework) for observing physical nature and
understanding nature as physical mechanisms. A
theoretical representation of a mechanism has (1)
a description of nature as special and temporal
kinematics and (2) an explanation of nature as
energy dynamics, which in mathematical form
allows (3) prediction of nature. Physical
theory provides a scientific representation of
nature as mechanism -- consisting of description,
explanation, and prediction of nature.
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FOUR PARADIGMS IN SCIENCE
WORLD SELF
MECHANISM FUNCTION SYSTEMS
LOGIC
MATTER MIND
ILLUSTRATION NESSI SEMANTIC TECHNOLOGIES
WORKING GROUP ROADMAP SESA SEMANTIC ENABLED
SERVICE APPLICATION SYSTEM
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? Advanced Engineering Materials and Technologies
- EuMaT ? Advisory Council for Aeronautics
Research in Europe - ACARE ? Embedded Computing
Systems - ARTEMIS ? European Biofuels Technology
Platform - Biofuels ? European Construction
Technology Platform - ECTP ? European
Nanoelectronics Initiative Advisory Council -
ENIAC ? European Rail Research Advisory Council
- ERRAC ? European Road Transport Research
Advisory Council - ERTRAC ? European Space
Technology Platform - ESTP ? European Steel
Technology Platform - ESTEP ? European
Technology Platform for the Electricity Networks
of the Future - SmartGrids ? European Technology
Platform for Wind Energy - TPWind ? European
Technology Platform on Smart Systems Integration
- EPoSS ? Food for Life - Food ? Forest based
sector Technology Platform - Forestry ? Future
Manufacturing Technologies - MANUFUTURE ? Future
Textiles and Clothing - FTC ? Global Animal
Health - GAH ? Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Platform -
HFP ? Industrial Safety ETP - IndustrialSafety
? Innovative Medicines for Europe - IME
? Integral Satcom Initiative - ISI ? Mobile and
Wireless Communications - eMobility
? Nanotechnologies for Medical Applications -
NanoMedicine ? Networked and Electronic Media -
NEM ? Networked European Software and Services
Initiative - NESSI ? Photonics21 - Photonics
? Photovoltaics - Photovoltaics ? Plants for
the Future - Plants ? Robotics - EUROP
? Sustainable Chemistry - SusChem ? Water
Supply and Sanitation Technology Platform - WSSTP
? Waterborne ETP - Waterborne ? Zero Emission
Fossil Fuel Power Plants - ZEP
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SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE
PROPOSALS
OBSERVATION PHYSICAL
INSTRUMENT SENSORY
EXPERIMENT PHYSICAL
PARADIGM MECHANISM
ANALYSIS MATHEMATICAL
THEORY PHYSICAL
MODALITY PREDICTION
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SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY IN MULTI-DISCIPLINARY
PROPOSALS
OBSERVATION PHYSICAL
OBSERVATION PURPOSE
INSTRUMENT SENSORY
EXPERIMENT PHYSICAL
INSTRUMENT
EXPERIMENT
PARADIGM MECHANISM
PARADIGM FUNCTION
THEORY PHYSICAL
THEORY BIOLOGICAL
ANALYSIS MATHEMATICAL
ANALYSIS
MODALITY PREDICTION
MODALITY PRESCRIPTION
OBSERVATION PROCESS
OBSERVATION LINGUISTIC
INSTRUMENT
EXPERIMENT
INSTRUMENT
EXPERIMENT
PARADIGM SYSTEM
PARADIGM LOGIC
THEORY DESIGN
THEORY REASON
ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS
MODALITY SUFFICIENCY
MODALITY NECESSITY