Adolescence: Social and Emotional Development

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CHAPTER 12

• Adolescence Social and Emotional Development

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Development of Identity Who Am I?
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Erikson and Identity Development

• Ego identity versus role diffusion
• Eriksons fifth stage of psychosocial development
• Primary task of adolescence is to develop ego
  identity
• Sense of who they are and what they stand for
• Psychological moratorium
• Adolescents experiment with different roles,
  values, beliefs, and relationships.
• Undergo identity crisis in which they examine
  their values and make decisions about their life
  roles

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Erikson and Identity Development (contd)

• Many adolescents join IN groups and fit in by
  imitating peers dress, speech, hairstyles
• Most resolve identity crisis and know what they
  stand for
• Those who dont are intolerant of people who are
  different and follow people who adhere to
  convention

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Identity Statuses

• Marcia (1991) theorized four identity statuses
  that represent four possible combinations of the
  dimensions of exploration and commitment that
  Erikson believed were important to identity.
• 1) Identity diffusion
• Have no commitments and dont try to form them
• 2) Foreclosure
• Commitments based on identification with parents,
  teachers, or religious leaders
• 3) Moratorium
• Actively exploring alternatives in attempt to
  make a choice
• 4) Identity achievement
• Develop firm commitment

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Table 12-1, p. 249
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Development of Identity Statuses

• Before high school
• Identity diffusion or foreclosure
• During high school
• The movement is from diffusion and foreclosure to
  moratorium and achievement statuses
• During college
• Greatest gains in identity formation
• Moratorium identity status is common during
  college
• Most college seniors have a stronger sense of
  identity than first-year students as a result
  of resolving identity crisis

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Ethnicity and Development of Identity

• If cultural values conflict between values of
  dominant culture and those of particular ethnic
  group, then the adolescent needs to sort out the
  values that are most meaningful to him or her and
  incorporate them into his/her identity
• Cultural heroes of adolescents from ethnic
  minority groups may be ignored.
• Scarcity of successful role models may be a
  problem, particularly for youth living in poverty
• Too much identification with dominant culture may
  lead to rejection from the minority group
• However, rejecting the dominant cultures values
  for that of the minority group may limit
  opportunities for advancement in the larger
  society.

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Ethnicity and Development of Identity (contd)

• Three stages in the development of ethnic
  identity are hypothesized
• 1) Unexamined ethnic identity
• Similar to diffusion or foreclosure
• 2) Ethnic identity search
• Some incident makes teen aware of ethnic identity
  and causes exploration
• 3) Achieved ethnic identity
• Involves a clear self-acceptance as a member of
  ones ethnic group

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Gender and Development of Identity

• Erikson
• Believed males and females begin identity
  formation in adolescence
• Females
• Relationships considered more important to
  identity formation
• Remain more likely to integrate occupational and
  family plans
• Males
• Occupational and ideological matters more
  important to identity formation
• Recent studies show
• Males and females are both concerned about
  occupational choices.

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Development of the Self-Concept

• Adolescents incorporate psychological
  characteristics and social relationships into
  self-descriptions.
• Adolescents self-perceptions become more complex
  than those of younger children.
• Adolescents add more categories to their
  self-description.
• Contradictions in self-description peak at about
  age 14 and then decline in later adolescence

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Table 12-2, p. 251
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Self-Esteem

• Self-esteem
• Declines as child progresses from middle
  childhood to about the age of 12 or 13
• Boys fantasize about having physiques of warriors
  in video games
• Girls want to be thin
• Notion of ideal self may move to better reflect
  reality
• As adolescents develop better skills, they may
  grow less self-critical.
• Low self-esteem can have serious consequences.
• Depressed and suicidal teens
• Emotional support from parents and peers
  important
• The more highly regarded the teen feels, the more
  likely to regard him-/herself higher

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Relationships with Parents and Peers
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Relationships with Parents

• Mothers
• Teens spend more time with mothers, have more
  conflicts with them, and report them as being
  more supportive and knowing them better.
• Fathers
• Adverse relationships with fathers are often
  associated with depression in adolescents.
• Good relations with fathers contribute to
  adolescents psychological well-being.
• Even though teens spend less time with parents,
  they continue to maintain love, loyalty, and
  respect for them.
• Conflict greatest during puberty and declines in
  later adolescence

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Relationships with Parents (contd)

• Conflict occurs between what parent thinks they
  should control such as curfews and chores versus
  what teenager thinks they should control.
• Mothers encourage teen to do homework and clean
  room
• Less conflict as teens get older more compromise
• Little evidence to support generation gap between
  parents and teens most teens are similar to
  parents with their value system
• Teens are not in constant state of rebellion
  against their parents

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Parenting Styles

• Adolescents from authoritative homes (parents are
  willing to exert control and explain reasons for
  doing so)
• show more competent behavior than other groups
  of teenagers.
• More self-reliant
• Do better in school
• Have better mental health
• Show the lowest incidence of psychological
  problems and misconduct, including drug use

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Friendships in Adolescence

• Teens have more friends than younger children.
• Tend to have one or two best friends and
  several good friends
• Spend many hours a day with them
• Texting, conversing, and IM-ing
• Teens more likely to
• stress acceptance, intimate self-disclosure, and
  mutual understanding
• stress loyalty and trustworthiness
• share with friends and less likely to compete
  with them

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Friendships in Adolescence (contd)

• Teens and their friends typically similar in age
  and race
• Almost always same sex
• Romantic attachments increase but most still
  choose members of same sex as best friend
• Friends are alike in
• attitudes, educational aspirations, and grades
• drinking, drug use, and sexual activity
• Friendship contributes to positive self-concept
  and psychological adjustment.
• Teens with best friend has higher self-esteem
  than teens without

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Friendships in Adolescence (contd)

• Females
• More likely to share secrets, personal problems,
  thoughts, and feelings to their friends
• Friendship networks are smaller and more
  exclusive
• More likely to engage in unstructured activities
  with friends such as listening to music
• Males
• More likely to disclose information about their
  sex lives
• Congregate in larger, less intimate groups
• Engage in more organized activities, games, and
  sports

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Peer Groups

• Cliques
• Consist of 5 to 10 individuals who hang out
  together and share activities and confidences
• Crowds
• Larger groups who may or may not spend much time
  together and are identified by the activity or
  attitude of the group
• Common labels are jocks, brains, druggies, nerds
• Negatively labeled groups show higher levels of
  drug use, delinquency, and depression
• Adolescent peer group includes members of
  opposite sex.

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Dating and Romantic Relationships

• Adolescents start dating or going out by the time
  they graduate high school.
• Heterosexual sequence for dating
• Putting oneself in situations where peers of
  opposite sex will be
• Group activities including opposite sex peers
• Group dating
• Traditional two-person dating
• Functions of dating
• Have fun, enhance prestige with ones peers,
  relate positively to different people
  preparation for adult courtship activities

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Dating and Romantic Relationships (contd)

• Dating relationships short-lived in early
  adolescence
• Relationships more stable and committed in late
  adolescence
• 18-year-olds more likely than 15-year-olds to
  mention love, trust, and commitment when
  describing romantic relationships

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Peer Influence

• Peer pressure fairly weak in early adolescence
  peaks during mid adolescence declines in late
  adolescence, after age 17
• Parents and peers are usually complementary
  rather than competing influences.
• Teens more likely to conform to peer standards in
  matters of taste and style more likely to agree
  with parents on moral principles and future
  educational and career goals
• Peer pressure tends to be positive and negative
  may influence friend to not do too well in
  school

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Peer Influence (contd)

• Adolescents who smoke, drink, use drugs, and
  engage in sexual activity often have friends who
  engage in those behaviors.
• Teens tend to have friends who are similar to
  themselves

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Sexuality
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Sexual Orientation

• Most teens have heterosexual orientation.
• Homosexuality or bisexuality
• Males with a homosexual orientation are referred
  to as gay
• Females with a homosexual orientation are
  referred to as lesbians
• Bisexual people are attracted to both males and
  females
• Savin-Williams and Diamond (2000, 2004
  Savin-Williams, 2007)
• Found the development of sexual orientation in
  gay males and lesbians involves the following
  steps
• attraction to members of the same sex,
  self-labeling
• sexual contact with members of same sex
• eventual disclosure of sexual orientation

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Sexual Orientation (contd)

• Disclosure usually occurs around age 18.
• But some people such as parents are never told
• Coming out refers to accepting ones homosexual
  orientation and declaring it to others.
• Usually disclosed to intimate group first
• Gay adolescents oftentimes ostracized and
  rejected by family and friends
• Eventually most families accept adolescent is gay
• Suicide and depression rates are higher among gay
  youth than heterosexual youth.

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Masturbation

• Masturbation
• Self-stimulation
• Most common sexual outlet during adolescence
• More common in males than females (Kinsey, 1948)
• May be due to stronger sex drive in boys, greater
  social constraints on girls, or both
• Inaccurate beliefs that masturbation is harmful
  and guilt about masturbation lessen the incidence
  of masturbation.

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Male-Female Sexual Behavior

• Teens who date earlier are more likely to engage
  in sexual activity during high school.
• The younger the teen when sexual activity occurs,
  the less likely they are to use contraceptives,
  more likely to become pregnant
• Petting
• Used to express affection, satisfy curiosity,
  heighten sexual arousal, and reach orgasm while
  avoiding pregnancy and maintaining virginity
• Many adolescents dont see petting as sex
• Girls more likely to be coerced into petting

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Male-Female Sexual Behavior (contd)

• Incidence of oral sex increases with age
• 42 of girls ages 15 to 17 reported engaging in
  oral sex compared to 72 or girls aged 18 to 19
• Used as a means of preventing pregnancy
• Between 40 and 50 of high school students have
  had sexual intercourse.
• Sexual involvement increases with age.

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Effects of Puberty

• Hormonal changes of puberty partly responsible
  for onset of sexual activity
• In boys
• Testosterone linked to sexual behavior
• In girls
• Testosterone linked to sexual interest
• But social factors play a greater role sexual
  behavior in girls
• Development of secondary sex characteristics may
  make teen more sexually attractive.
• Early-maturing girls are more likely to have
  older friends, which may draw them into sexual
  relationships.

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Parental Influences

• Teens with close relationships to their parents
  are less likely to initiate activity at an early
  age.
• Teens who communicate well with parents delay
  onset of sexual activity if these youngsters do
  have intercourse, they are more likely to use
  birth control and have fewer sex partners

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Peer Influences

• Good predictor of sexual activity is the sexual
  activity of a teens best friends.
• Main reason for sexual activity is peer pressure.
• Peers and media sources (TV shows, films,
  magazines, and the Internet) not parents
  serve as source of sex education

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Teenage Pregnancy

• 9 in 10 adolescents who become pregnant do so
  accidentally and without committed partners.
• Most young women in developed nations defer
  pregnancy until after they have completed most or
  all of their education.
• Girls get pregnant because
• they have little information about how to address
  boys sexual advances
• they fail to use contraceptives, and younger
  teens have less access to contraceptive devices
• fewer than half use them reliably

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Teen Pregnancy (contd)

• Causes for teen pregnancy
• Some girls get pregnant to force partner to make
  a commitment
• Some get pregnant to rebel
• Most get pregnant due to lack of knowledge of
  reproduction and contraception
• 750,000 teen girls get pregnant a year
• Results in 400,000 births a year
• 10 to 20 years ago, 1 million girls were getting
  pregnant each year
• CDCP attribute drop-off in careless sex to
  educational efforts by schools, the media,
  religious institutions, and communities
• Half of pregnant teens get abortions.

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Consequences of Teenage Pregnancy

• Outcomes for teen mothers who have resources to
  nurture their babies are generally good.
• Pregnant teens more likely to have medical
  complications during the months of pregnancy, and
  their labor is likely to be prolonged
• Babies at a greater risk of being premature and
  LBW most likely due to SES of the teen mother
• Teen mother less likely to graduate high school
  or move on to postsecondary education, more
  likely to need public assistance, and less likely
  to have assistance from the babys father

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Preventing Teenage Pregnancy

• Some sexual education programs help to delay the
  onset of sexual activity.
• Among teenagers already sexually active, sex
  education is associated with the increased use of
  effective contraceptives.

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Juvenile Delinquency
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Juvenile Delinquency

• Juvenile delinquency
• Children or adolescents who engage in illegal
  activities and come into contact with the
  criminal justice system
• Can include serious behaviors as homicide, rape,
  and robbery
• Truancy, underage drinking, running away from
  home, and sexual promiscuity are considered
  illegal only when performed by a minor
• These are termed status offenses
• 4 in 10 crimes in the U.S. committed by
  individuals under the age of 21 3 in 10 by
  adolescents under 18
• Many delinquent acts are referred to mental
  health agency

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Ethnicity, Gender, and Juvenile Delinquency

• African-American adolescents more likely to be
  arrested than European-American adolescents
• African-American youths are 13 of the adolescent
  population in the U.S.
• One-fourth of the juvenile arrests
• One-half of those arrested for violent crimes
• African-American children less likely than
  European-American children to be living with both
  parents

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Ethnicity, Gender, and Juvenile Delinquency
(contd)

• Bishop (2005) notes two explanations for the
  European American-African American difference
• 1) Differential offending hypothesis
• Actual racial differences contribute to the
  seriousness of delinquent behavior
• 2) Differential treatment hypothesis
• No behavioral differences between the two, yet
  groups are treated differently by the juvenile
  justice system

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Ethnicity, Gender, and Juvenile Delinquency
(contd)

• Risk factors
• Poverty
• African-American and Latino-American children are
  three times as likely as European-American youth
  to be living in poverty.
• Broken families
• African Americans less likely to be living with
  both of their biological parents
• Gender
• Boys more likely than girls to engage in crimes
  of violence
• Girls more likely than boys to commit status
  offenses

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Suicide When the Adolescent Has Nothing - Except
Everything - to Lose
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Suicide When the Adolescent Has Nothing Except
Everything to Lose

• Suicide is the third leading cause of death among
  adolescents.
• Since 1960, the suicide rate has tripled for
  young people, ages 15 to 24.
• 1 to 2 American adolescents in 10,000 commit
  suicide each year.
• 1 in 10 has attempted suicide at least once.

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Risk Factors in Suicide

• Suicidal adolescents experience four areas of
  psychological problems
• (1) Confusion about the self
• (2) Impulsiveness
• (3) Emotional instability
• (4) Interpersonal problems
• Some suicidal teenagers are high achieving, rigid
  perfectionists who have set impossibly high
  expectations for themselves.
• Feel depressed when they compare themselves to
  others negatively
• Adolescent suicide attempts more common after
  stressful life event

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Risk Factors in Suicide (contd)

• Stressful life events can include
• breaking up with a boyfriend/girlfriend
• death of a parent or friend
• a family member leaving home
• Other factors include concerns over sexuality,
  school grades, problems at home, substance abuse,
  being found out for something like failing
  grades, or getting arrested
• Suicide runs in families.

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Risk Factors in Suicide (contd)

• Suicidal warning signs include
• belief that it is acceptable to kill ones self
• drug abuse and other kinds of delinquency
• victimization by bullying
• extensive body piercing
• stress, hostility, depression, and other
  psychological disorders
• heavy smoking
• low self-esteem
• increasing age from 11 to 21

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Ethnicity, Gender, and Suicide

• Native-American and Latin-American teenagers have
  highest suicide rates
• due in part to stresses they are exposed to
• lack of access to healthcare
• European-American teens are next highest rate
• African-American teens least likely to attempt or
  think about suicide
• 3 times as many female as males attempt a suicide
• 4 times as many males complete a suicide
• Males use rapid and lethal methods, females use
  drugs