Arctic Strategies and Policies: an overview

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Arctic Strategies and Policiesan overview

• Dr. Lassi Heininen
• University of Lapland, Finland
• Northern Research Forum

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The early-21st century Arctic

• A peaceful region with high stability based on a
  wide intergovernmental and regional cooperation
• No conflicts, but disputes on maritime borders
  and asymmetric environmental conflicts
• Major challenges e.g. climate change and
  long-range air and water pollution, and
  globalization
• Legally and politically divided by national
  borders and internal waters (of the Arctic
  states)
• Major military structures (nuclear weapon
  systems) and capability for national defence are
  still there
• Importance of national interests

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The early-21st century Arctic continues..

• A significant multifunctional - environmental,
  geoeconomic and geopolitical - change has
  occurred
• E.g. growing global interest toward the region
  and its rich natural resources
• E.g. a manifold growth in the geo-strategic
  importance of the region
• Among indicators of the change climate change,
  energy security, sovereignty (Ilulissat meeting),
  globalization
• This is taken as a reality, threat or challenge

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The Arctic States

• The role and position of the Arctic states was
  changed due to the first geopolitical change
  the A8 was defined
• The five littoral states with their ministerial
  ad hoc meetings the A5 was defined - and the
  Arctic redefined?
• A state still the most important actor in the
  Arctic, but ..
• .. there are new actors (with their interests)
  and challenges as well as threats
• The states emphasize the importance of the AC but
  have their own interests, agendas, priorities and
  policies
• An example of this is that the states have
  recently accepted their arctic/northern
  strategy/policy
• --- The post-Cold War period is over!?

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Canada

• The Northern Strategy Our North, Our Heritage,
  Our Future (July 2009) (first of all) for
  domestic policy and audience
• Followed by Statement on Canadas Arctic Foreign
  Policy (August 2010) to promote the Strategy and
  serve Governments Arctic foreign policy
• Priority areas of the Strategy are
• Exercising Canadas Arctic sovereignty
• Promoting social economic development
• Protecting the Norths environmental heritage
• Improving and devolving Northern governance

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Interesting findings

• The North is central to Canadas national
  identity, and said to be first about people,
  but peoples are not among the priorities
• Canadas Arctic (maritime) sovereignty is the
  ...number one Arctic Foreign Policy Priority,
  and sovereignty over its Arctic lands and waters
  is undisputed
• Canada will continue to be a global leader in
  Arctic science
• Economic develop as high priority and shall
  include indigenous participation in relevant
  processes
• The Strategy reflects a vision about, and for,
  the North in the context of the entire country

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Kingdom of Denmark

• Join draft strategy of Denmark and Greenland (May
  2008) with the twofold goal
• - to support and strengthen Greenland's
  development towards increased autonomy
• - to maintain the Kingdom's position as a major
  player in the Arctic
• Kingdom of Denmarks Strategy for the Arctic
  2011-2020 (August 2011)
• Its strategic priority is to maintain a peaceful,
  secure and safe Arctic
• - with self-sustaining growth and development
• - with respect for the Arctics fragile climate,
  environment and nature
• - in close cooperation with international
  partners

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Interesting findings

• The (first) joint strategy by Denmark and
  Greenland indicates and emphasizes Greenlands
  stronger self-government and its new
  jurisdictional position
• The final strategy also covers the Faroe Islands
  and aims to strengthen the Kingdoms status as
  global player in the Arctic
• Has a world-wide, global perspective
• Great emphasis on (new) industrial activities,
  such as fisheries, hydropower, mining, tourism
  and oil exploration, and tries to attract
  industries to come and invest
• Identification of connection between climate
  change and increases accessibility for
  exploration
• Importance of the Ilulissat Polar Sea
  Conference
• Criticism of the AC as having been unable to
  play so prominent role on sustainable development
  in the Arctic

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Finland

• Strategy for the Arctic Region, adopted by
  Finish Cabinet Committee on European Union (June
  2010)
• The main substantial sectors of the Strategy
• The environment
• Economic activities and know-how
• Transportation and infrastructure
• Indigenous peoples
• Plus, a list of means for to reach these Arctic
  policy goals, and a chapter on the EU and the
  Arctic region

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Interesting findings

• Comprehensive and with wide perspective
• Emphasizes the Arctic as a stable and peaceful
  area
• Recognizes the special features and risks of the
  fragile arctic ecosystem supports research as a
  basis for decision-making
• Highest priorities of the Strategy appear to be
  economic interests, such as marine traffic and
  infrastructure
• --- Is there a contradiction?
• Supports indigenous participation in
  international cooperation (no ratification of ILO
  169 Convention)
• Emphasizes the importance of the multilateral
  northern cooperation, and supports the AC as the
  main forum..
• .. and the role (and importance) of the EU in the
  Arctic region

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Iceland

• Iceland in the High North by the Icelandic MFA
  (September 2009) with six highlights
• International cooperation
• Security through international cooperation
• Resource development and environ protection
• Transportation
• People and cultures
• International coop on research and monitoring
• Parliamentary Resolution on Icelands Arctic
  Policy approved by the Parliament (March 2011)
  with twelve principles

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Interesting findings

• No emphasis on sovereignty, but rather on
  international, multilateral and regional
  cooperation
• Stability and security as well as maritime safety
  through international and scientific cooperation
• Emphasis on the importance of resource
  development, incl. renewable energy and fishing
  industry less emphasis on environmental
  protection
• One of the principles asks to prevent
  human-induced climate change and its effects
• Visions and strong expectations of global
  trans-arctic shipping routes, and aviation a
  potential trans-shipment hub
• Emphasis on inter coop on research and higher
  education
• Iceland located entirely within the Arctic
  region and thus is included the Arctic Ocean
  to side firmly against the so-called five
  (litoral) states meeting

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Norway

• The Norwegian Governments High North Strategy
  (December 2006) and its follow-up strategy New
  Building Blocks in the North (March 2009)
• Seven revised strategic priorities of Norways
  Strategy
• to develop knowledge about climate change and the
  environment
• to improve monitoring, emergency response and
  maritime safety in northern waters
• to promote sustainable use of off-shore petroleum
  and renewable marine resources
• to promote off-shore business development in the
  North
• to further-develop the infrastructure in the
  North
• to continue to exercise sovereignty firmly and
  strengthen cross-border cooperation (with Russia)
  in the North
• to safeguard the cultures and livelihoods of
  indigenous peoples

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Interesting findings

• Unusally comprehensive and integrated into
  long-term Norwegian policy in the North growing
  recognition of its importance for Norway
• The follow-up strategy the High North as one of
  the most important priorities of the Norwegian
  Government
• The term the High North is used (stubbornly) as
  a broad concept
• The Strategy is built on the perception that the
  main feature of the arctic geopolitics is
  stability and peaceful cooperation, not a race
• Concrete proposals for the building of a
  partnership with Russia in the BEAR and a strong
  call for active engagement of Russian cooperation
• Consequently, Norway defines the importance of
  regional coop and business development in foreign
  and security policy in terms of comprehensive
  security, economic growth and knowledge-building
• The High North is a new petroleum province and
  Norway the best steward of resources strong
  emphasis on management and utilisation of marine
  resources, in cooperation with Russia
• Identifies both energy and climate change as
  security issues
• Emphasis on strengthening Norwegian state
  sovereignty in the High North

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Russia

• The Fundamentals of State Policy of the Russian
  Federation in the Arctic in the Period up to 2020
  and Beyond adopted by President D. Medvedev
  (September 2008)
• The strategy priorities are
• active interaction of Russia with sub-Arctic
  states in regards to delimitation of maritime
  areas on the basis of international law and
  mutual arrangements
• creating a uniform Arctic search and rescue
  regime
• strengthening of bilateral relationships within
  regional organizations (AC and BEAC)
• assistance in management and effective use of
  cross-polar air routes and the NSR for
  international navigation
• contributions to international Arctic forums
  through the Russia-EU partnerships
• delimitation of maritime spaces in the Arctic
  Ocean and maintenance of a mutually advantageous
  presence of Russia in the Spitsbergen archipelago
• improvement of state management of the social and
  economic development
• improvement of the quality of life for indigenous
  peoples
• development of the Arctic resource base through
  improved technology
• modernization and development of Russias Arctic
  infrastructure

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Interesting findings

• Comprehensive state policy for Russias Arctic
  zone and the entire region
• Reflects the basic national interest
• using the Arctic resources as strategic resource
  base providing a solution to problems of social
  and economic development
• maintaining the region as a zone of peace and
  cooperation as well as the sphere of military
  security
• preserving unique ecological systems
• using the NSR as a national single transport
  communication of Russia in the Arctic
• This new Arctic state policy is keenly linked
  with and supported by other federal policies and
  strategies
• It is possible to interpret the Policy as a
  pragmatic means for domestic politics and
  development of the Federation, esp. in terms of
  Russias infrastructural challenges

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Sweden

• Swedens Strategy for policy in the Arctic
  Region (Sveriges strategi för den arktiska
  regionen), adopted by the Swedish Government (May
  2011)
• The three areas, which are defined as the
  priorities
• - Climate and the environment
• - Economic development
• - The human dimension

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Interesting findings

• Adopted and launched at the same day, when Sweden
  started its chairmanship of the AC
• Shows, even emphasizes, many ties which connect,
  have connected, Sweden to the Arctic
• Among the three priorities economic development
  and interests, such as mining, petroleum,
  tourism, is the most rich and multifunctional,
  even some sort of top, priority of the Strategy
• Also climate and the environment, and
  resilience
• The Strategy also clearly states that
  multilateral cooperation in, and dealing with,
  the Arctic is the main priority for Sweden
• - this is much along the tradition of Swedens
  foreign policy

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The United States

• The US Arctic Region Policy by the President
  Bushs Administration (January 2009)
• Interpreted objectives of the United States
  Arctic Policy
• National security and homeland security interests
  in the Arctic
• International governance, largely through the AC
• Boundary issues including extended continental
  shelf
• Promotion of international scientific cooperation
  
• Maritime transportation (incl. maritime safety
  and environmental protection)
• Economic development, particularly energy
• Environmental protection and conservation

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Interesting findings

• Strong emphasis of national and homeland security
  and borders, for to project sea power throughout
  the region
• Supports and proposes the US ratification of the
  Law of the Sea Convention
• High priority to international governance in the
  context of the AC, as well as continued
  cooperation with other countries
• High priority to scientific research, esp.
  international scientific cooperation, and the
  White House takes the responsibility
• The US shall continue to cooperate on Arctic
  issues through the UN and its agencies as well as
  int. treaties (e.g. UNFCCC)
• the USA is identified as an Arctic nation, with
  varied and compelling interests in that region

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European Union

• The European Unions Commissions Communication
  on the Arctic Region was launched in November
  2008
• It was followed by the European Councils
  Conclusions on Arctic issues (March and December
  2009)
• The main policy objectives of the Communication
  are
• Protecting and preserving the Arctic environment
  and its population
• Promoting sustainable use of resources
• Contributing to enhanced Arctic multilateral
  governance

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Interesting findings

• The main message is that the Union has growing
  interest in the High North and would like to
  become (again) present in, and implement its
  interests within, the region
• Indications that the EU is going to create its
  own arctic policy, and this is done via this
  emerging policy
• The three main policy objectives indicate that
  the EU would like to emphasize its soft values
  and policy in the region
• These can be interpreted to represent EUs new
  geopolitical discourse with an aim to enter the
  North for to control
• The ND policy plays a weak role in the
  Communication
• The EU is seen as inextricably linked to the
  Arctic region this is perceived as weakening
  the Union there is real need for strengthening
  the Unions position and presence there

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The Arctic / the North defined by each strategy

• Canada Own North is Canadas far North, and
  Canadas North is about people
• Denmark The Arctic in recent years become a
  central location on the world map
• Finland Can be defined by several ways (e.g. the
  Arctic Circle)
• Iceland The country is located on the
  periphery of the Arctic in the center of the
  North Atlantic Ocean
• Norway Means more or less the Barents Sea
  region, and the High North has been placed
  firmly on the map of Europe
• Russia Is defined as consisting of the five
  littoral states of the Arctic Ocean
• Sweden There are several definitions of the
  Arctic
• USA The Arctic is with a matrix of issues

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Self-identification and (re)definition as an
Arctic / Northern country / state

• Canada the global leader in Arctic science
  The North is central to the Canadian national
  identity
• Denmark to strengthen the Kingdoms status as
  global player in the Arctic
• Finland as an Arctic country is a natural actor
  in the Arctic region
• Iceland the only country located entirely
  within the Arctic region
• Norway the High North is gradually becoming
  more synonymous with the Arctica Norwegian
  perspective
• Russia to maintain the role of a leading Arctic
  power
• Sweden there are many connections to tie Sweden
  to the Arctic
• USA an Arctic nation

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Arctic states main priorities / objectives

• Sov/S Econ/ Trans Envir Gov Peo/ Scien
• Can x xx x x x
• Den x xx x x/x
• Fin /x xx x x x /x x
• Ice /x x x x xx x x
• Nor x xx x xx /x x
• Rus x xx x xx /x x
• Swe x x x x/x
• USA x x x x x x
• (Heininen, Arctic Strategies and Policies
  Inventory and Comparative Study, 2011)

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Arctic states summary of the priorities

• - Sovereignty and national defence Five littoral
  states
• - Comprehensive security Finland, Iceland,
  Sweden
• - Economic development All the strategies
• - Regional development and infra Most of the
  strategies
• - Transportation Finland, Iceland, Russia, USA
• -- Aviation Iceland and Russia
• - Environment Almost all the strategies
• - Governance All the strategies
• -- Safety/Rescue Denmark, Finland, Iceland,
  Norway, Russia
• Peoples/Indigenous peoples Most of the
  strategies
• Science/Scientific coop Most of the strategies

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Reflection/response to the change(s)

• Canada yes
• Kingdom of Denmark yes and no (self-governing)
• Finland yes
• Iceland yes
• Norway not really (Russia)
• Russia no (pragmatic means for domestic policy)
• Sweden yes
• USA yes
• -- Global perspective Denmark and Finland

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