Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence

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Theoretical Perspectives on Adolescence
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OUTLINE

• Biological theories
• Hall
• Organismic theories
• Freud, Erikson, and Piaget
• Learning theories
• Skinners Behaviorists
• Social learning theories
• Sociological theories
• Historical and anthropological approaches

3
1. ?????????????

• ??????????????,???????????????????????????????????
  ??????????,???????????
• ??????????????????????????(universal/common to
  people in different cultures and social contexts)

4
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5
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• ????(0-4?)
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• ???(4-8?)
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• ???(8-12?)
• ???????????????????????,????????????????????

6
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• ???(12-25?)
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  stress)
• P32-33
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  ??????,??????????????????????,?????????,????????

7
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8
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9
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10
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11
2.??????????????

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12
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13
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• ??????????????,??????????????,?????????
• ???(0-1?)
• ???(1-3?)
• ???(3-5?)
• ???(5-12?)
• ???(11-20?)

14
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15
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16
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17
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• ????????????,?????????????(psychosocial theory of
  human development)
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18
?1 ?????????????
?? ???? /?????? ?? ???????
???(0-1.5?) ????(1.5-3?) ???(3-5?) ???(5-12?) ???(12-18?) ????(18-25?) ????(25-65?) ???(65???) ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ????????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????????
19
?????????????

• ??????????????????,??????????????
• ?????????????,???????????,???????????
• ??????????????????????????????????????????????????
  ???????????(????,1998)
• ??????????????????,????????????

20
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• ?????(self identity)
• ???????
• ???????(?????)
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21
3. ?????????????? ????

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22
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24
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25
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26
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• ???????(vicarious learning)
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27
? 1 ??????
28
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4. Lewins Field Theory

• ???????(Gestalt Psychology)??????,?????????????,??
  ?????????????
• ???????????????????????
• Behavior (B) is a function of the Person (P) and
  the Environment (E), i.e. BF(P, E)
• The sum total of all environmental and personal
  factors in interaction is called the life space
  (LSp) or psychological space , i.e. BF(LSp)

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4. Lewins Field Theory

• ??????????
• personindividuals physical and mental factors,
  including physical status, needs, motives, and
  goals etc.
• environment??????????????????????????????????????
  ??????(environment conceived by an individual)
• ??????????????????????????,????????????????
  (??, 1997)

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4. Lewins Field Theory

• ??????????????????,??????,???????????

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Figure 1 An individuals life space in a
conflict situation
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4. Lewins Field Theory

• Actual behavior would be determined by the
  strength of the forces, including positive or
  negative valence of goals, forces of barriers,
  etc.

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4. Lewins Field Theory

• Evaluation
• Since person and environment are seen as a
  constellation of interrelated factors, this
  theory achieves harmony among the many aspects of
  development by combining biological,
  sociological, environmental, and psychological
  factors in the concept of life space
• As a consequence of the emphasis on the
  combination of a persons biological,
  psychological, and environmental factors, Lewin
  preferred to explain development in terms of
  individual, rather than in terms of group

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Lewins Ideas about development

• ???????????????????????
• ??????(development of individual)??????????????,??
  ????????????????????,??????????????????????
• ??????

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Lewins Ideas about development

• In infancy, a childs life space is unstructured
  and undifferentiated, and the child depends on
  outside help and external structuring of the
  environment by other people
• As the child groups up, his/her life space
  increases in structure and differentiation, and
  the child learns to be more and more self-reliant

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Lewins Ideas about development

• Lewin held the notion that an individuals space
  of free movement is limited by a. what is
  forbidden to a person b. what is beyond his/her
  abilities (Lewin, 1936, p. 217)
• As the child matures, fewer restrictions were
  placed on his/her freedom to move, in addition,
  the ability to deal effectively with the
  increased life space grows

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• Figure 2 Comparison of the life space of
  free movement of child(a) and adult(b)

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Lewins Ideas about development

• Lack of freedom of movement will place
  restriction on the childs attempt to expand
  his/her life space, and psychological rigidity
  may result
• However, if the life space, especially in early
  childhood, remains unstructured, the personality
  will lack integration and organization, as a
  result, the individual will develop personality
  confusion
• So that, not only independence and freedom are
  needed for positive development, but also certain
  kind of dependency is necessary

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Figure 3 The space of free movement of
the adolescent

• As the adolescents life space increases, many
  more regions become potentially accessible
• But often it is not at all clear to adolescents
  whether or not they are supposed to enter these
  regions uncertainty

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Lewins Ideas about development

• Adolescents are not sure whether they are allowed
  or forbidden to enter certain regions
• The uncertainty or difficulty arises because
  these regions are no longer beyond their
  ability, and these regions are not explicitly
  allowed nor explicitly forbidden
• Consequently, the definition and redefinition of
  the space of free movement in the adolescents
  life space may take innumerable hours of
  discussion and argumentation between them and
  their parents

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Lewins Ideas about development

• Differences between developmental stages as a
  function of increasing age manifest themselves in
  the following ways, i.e. Lewins view of point
  about developmental stages
• 1. An increase in the scope of the life space in
  regard to
• a. What is part of the psychological present
• b. The time perspective in the direction of the
  psychological past and the psychological future
• 2. An increasing differentiation of every level
  of the life space into a multitude of social
  relations and area of activities

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Lewins Ideas about development

• Differences between developmental stages as a
  function of increasing age manifest themselves in
  the following ways, i.e. Lewins view of point
  about developmental stages
• 3. An increasing organization
• 4. A change in the general fluidity or rigidity
  of the life space

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Figure 4 the life space of two
developmental stages

• life space of a younger child (a) and life space
  of a older child(b) in regard to the present
  situation, the reality-irreality dimension, and
  the time perspective

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Lewins Ideas about development

• From figure 4, you can see
• 1. The main difference between young childs life
  space and that of adolescents is the increased
  differentiation
• Change in the differentiation of the LSp occurs
  slowly at certain times and more rapidly at other
  times
• Slow differentiation results in relatively
  harmonious periods of development, while rapid
  changes are more likely to result in periods of
  crisis
• Adolescence is characterized by a relatively
  rapid change in the structure of the LSp, and
  changes occur in several different domain
  cognitive, physical, emotional, and interpersonal

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Lewins Ideas about development

• From figure 4, you can see
• 2. The time perspective has expanded
• The time perspective of the older child includes
  an awareness of a more distant future and a more
  distant past
• Which has far-reaching consequences for
  education, the curriculum, and vocational
  planning
• 3. The reality-irreality level also takes on new
  dimensions
• Better in distinguish between reality and
  irreality

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• Fundamental to Lewins theory of development is
  the view that
• adolescence is a period of transition during
  which adolescents must change their group
  membership

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• Adolescent is experiencing biological and
  physical changes, which make he or she is not
  sure who he/she is, child or adult?
• People around the adolescent, e.g. parents and
  teachers, may treat the adolescent at one time
  like a child or like an adult at another time
• Certain childish forms of behavior are no longer
  acceptable (such as washing clothes by mother),
  and at the same time, some of the adult forms of
  behavior are not yet permitted (such as car
  driving)

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Figure 5 The adolescent as a marginal man

• During childhood and adulthood, the adults (A)
  and children(C) are viewed as relatively
  separated groups
• Adolescent belonging to a group (Ad), which can
  be viewed as an overlapping field of the
  childrens and the adults group belonging to
  both of them, or as standing between them, not
  belonging to either one

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• The adolescent is in a state of social
  locomotion, moving through an unstructured
  social and psychological field
• Goals are no longer clears, and the paths to them
  are ambiguous and full of uncertainties
• Since the adolescent does not have a clear
  understanding of his or her social status,
  expectations, obligations, or how to cope with
  rejection, his or her behavior reflects this
  uncertainty

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• The adolescent is confronted with several
  attractive choices that are at the same time have
  relatively impervious boundaries, e.g. driving a
  car, smoking
• Since the adolescent is moving through a rapidly
  changing field of life, he/she does not know the
  directions to specific goals and is open to
  constructive guidance, but is also vulnerable to
  persuasion, seduction, and group pressure
• Unfamiliar situations cause crises that can
  produce withdrawal, sensitivity, and inhibition
  as well as aggression, inappropriate emotional
  outbursts, rebellion, and radicalism

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• Because of a lack of cognitive structure, the
  adolescent frequently is not sure whether certain
  behavior can help in moving toward or away from a
  particular goal nor what its consequences may be

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• During adolescence changes in body structure,
  body experience, and new body sensations and
  urges are more drastic, so that even the
  well-known life space of body image becomes less
  familiar, unreliable, and unpredictable
• As a result, adolescents are very concerned about
  their body image, and they will spend
  considerable time studying their body image in
  mirror, and are concerned about the development
  of primary and secondary sex characteristics
• Negative feelings about ones own body are
  related to a negative self-concept and may lead
  to emotional instability that can change ones
  orientation toward life

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• The change in a childs life space from being
  limited in scope but relatively structured to the
  increased but less structured and often unknown
  regions of the adolescents life space may
  generate insecurities
• But it includes also more extensive social
  relationships, a new body image, and expanding
  geographic surroundings, as well as an increased
  perception of the future and a better
  understanding of the past

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• In sum, Field theory defines adolescence as a
  period of transition from childhood to adulthood
• The possibility of moving from one social group
  to the other is determined informally by ones
  physique looking like an adult makes it easier
  to get adult privileges
• Formally, adult privileges and responsibilities
  are determined by law and come at legally
  established ages
• This transition is characterized by deeper and
  far-reaching changes, a faster rate of growth,
  and differentiation of the life space as compared
  with the preceding stages of late childhood
• The transition is also characterized by the fact
  that the individual enters a cognitively
  unstructured region that results in uncertainty
  of behavior

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• Transition from childhood to adulthood is a
  universal phenomenon, since children change their
  social roles and eventually become mature adults
  in all societies
• However, the shift from childhood to adulthood
  can occur in different patterns
• It can take the form of a sudden shift, as has
  been observed in primitive societies in which the
  puberty rites end childhood and signify the
  beginning of adulthood
• There can also be a gradual shift, especially if
  the child group and the adult group are not as
  clearly separated and defined as they are in our
  society

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• In modern societies, adolescents find themselves
  in a social situation in which their group
  membership is not clearly defined
• The adolescent in such an in-between situation is
  referred to by Lewin as the marginal man, and
  the adolescents in-between standing is
  represented in Figure 5 by the overlapping area
  (Ad) of the child region (C) and the adult region
  (A)

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• Being a marginal man implies that the adolescent
  may at times act more like a child, often when
  he/she wants to avoid adult responsibilities at
  other times he/she may act more like an adult and
  request adult privileges
• Parents and teachers, too, may interpret the
  marginal-man situation in their own way they are
  more likely to remind the adolescent to be
  mature, grown-up, and adultlike when the issues
  involve responsibilities, chores, work, and
  study then perceive their charges as still too
  young and immature when it comes to adult
  rights and privileges
• Such a situation is partly responsible for some
  of adolescent difficulties in modern societies

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• From these basic assumptions about the nature of
  human development, Lewin (1939) derives a number
  of statements that describe, explain, and if the
  the field forces are known, predict adolescent
  behavior
• 1. Adolescents may show shyness and sensitivity
  but at the same time aggressiveness, mainly
  because of the unclearness of the situation and
  the disequilibrium in their life space

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• 2. As a marginal man, the adolescent experiences
  a continuous conflict among different attitudes,
  values, ideologies, and life-styles, since he/she
  is shifting his/her orientation from the
  childhood group to the adult group, but he/she
  really does not belong to either. Therefore,
  he/she experiences lack of social anchorage
  except in relationship to his/her peer group
• 3. These conflicts in values, attitudes, and
  ideologies result in increased emotional tension
• 4. There is a predisposition in the adolescent to
  take extreme positions and to change behavior
  drastically consequently, one can find radical,
  rebellious attitudes and actions side by side
  with sensitivity and withdrawal tendencies

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Lewins Ideas about adolescent development

• 5. Adolescent behavior can be observed only if
  and to the extent that the structure and the
  dynamics of the life involve the following
  (1)expansion and differentiation of the life
  space (2)marginal-man standing in relationship
  to childhood and adult groups (3) biologically
  determined changes in the life space as a result
  of body changes. The particular type of behavior
  that emerges and the degree of adolescent
  behavior depend greatly on the strength and
  nature of these conflicting forces. Above all in
  importance is the amount of difference between
  and the factors that separate adult society and
  child society in a particular culture

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5.?????????

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  ????

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5.?????????

• ??????????????(?????)
• ?????????,???????????????????????????,??????????
• ???????????????,??????????????????????
• ?????????????????????????,???????????????????????
  ?

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5.?????????

• ???????????????,?????????????????????????????
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• ???????????????????,?????????????
• ??????

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6.Piagets theory Basic concepts

• ???????
• ????????????(adaptation)
• ????(assimilation)???(accommodation)??????
• ??(schema)?????????(equilibrium)
• ?????????
• ??(maturation)
• ?????????(physical and symbolic logic knowledge)
• ????(social knowledge)
• ??(equilibrium)

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6. Piagets theory Basic concepts

• Schema ??
• A generalized or established pattern of
  meaningful and repeatable behavior patterns, such
  as the sucking schema, the grasping schema
• Equilibration ??
• Equilibration refers to the balance between the
  developing child and his/her physical and social
  environment
• Operation ??
• Interiorized actions than one performs in ones
  mind, which allow the subject to mentally perform
  actions that previously had to be performed
  physically

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6. Piagets theory Developmental stages

• Developmental stages
• A sequential progression in the cognitive
  structures, which underlie problem-solving
  operations, takes place
• Stages emerge in an orderly, invariant sequential
  pattern, and no stage can be skipped
• Stages are characterized by a whole structure
  Each stage is characterized by an overall
  structure in terms of which the main behavior
  patterns can be explained (Piaget Inhelder,
  1969, p. 153)
• The earlier stages provide essential building
  material that the individual integrates and
  transforms in the process of moving to the next
  higher level

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6. Piagets theory Developmental stages

• Four stages of cognitive development
• Sensorimoter stage(0-2 years old)
• Preoperational stage(2-7 year old)
• Concrete operational stage(7-11 years old)
• Formal operational stage(from 11 years old on)

69
6. Piagets theory Formal operational
thought

• Formal operational thought
• Distinction between operational thought of the
  child and the formal operations of adolescence
• the former can deal with problems that are
  presented concretely, while the later can deal
  with abstract ideas and use more involved logical
  processes
• Four major components of formal operations
• Conception of possibilities
• Hypothetical deductive reasoning
• Interpropositional thinking
• Combinational or systemic thinking

70
6. Piagets theory Formal operational
thought

• Adolescents thought
• Becomes more abstract and shows a more
  sophisticated mastery of formal operations
  adolescents gain the ability to reason in terms
  of verbally stated hypotheses and no longer in
  terms of concrete objects and their manipulation
• Be able to integrate all of the specific
  operations, a process which results in a
  structured wholeness of the thought processes
• Can make hypothetical deductions and entertain
  the idea of relativity adolescent, unlike
  child, is an individual who thinks beyond the
  present and forms theories about everything,
  delighting especially in consideration of what is
  not

71
6. Piagets theory Formal operational
thought

• Adolescents thought
• Analytically reflect about their own thinking
  thinking about thinking, statement about
  statement so that adolescents begin to have
  theories about nature, person, and social items
  such as implicit personality theory and
  political idealism. The ability of reflective
  thinking also contribute partly to the
  re-emergence of adolescent egocentrism

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6. Piagets theory Formal operational
thought

• ???
• ??????????????????????????????
• ????????????,?????????????????????????????????????
  ???,??????,??????
• ???????????????????????????,??????????????????
• ??????????,????????????????,??????????????????????
  ???????????,??????,??????,??????(???, 1982)

73
6. Piagets theory Formal operational
thought

• ???
• ????????????????????????????????????????????????
  (???,1982)
• ?????????????????????,????????????????????????????
  ??????????
• ????????,????????????????????,?????

74
7. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence

• Emphasis on the role of culture on adolescent
  development
• Human behavior could be explained in exclusively
  cultural terms or human behavior is
  understandable primarily in the context of social
  and cultural patterns
• Cultural determinism or Cultural relativism
  on development

75
7. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence

• The question that Margaret Mead explored
• Are the disturbance which vex our adolescents
  due to the nature of adolescence itself or to the
  civilization? Under different conditions does
  adolescence present a different picture? (Mead,
  1928/1950, p. 17)

76
7. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence

• ?????????
• ??????(Coming of Age in Samoa, 1928)
• ?????????,????????????????,????????????????????
  ?
• ??????????????????????????,????????????,????????
  ????????????????????????????????,????????????????
  ????????????????????,?????????????????????????????
  ????????????????????,?????????????

77
7. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence

• ?????????
• ??,???????????????????,??????????????,???????????
  ?????,???????????????????????????????????(??????
  , 1988)
• ????????????????????????????????????????????,?????
  ???????????
• ??,????????????,?????????????????????

78
7. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence

• Ruth Benedicts theory of cultural conditioning
• ?????????????(Continuities and Discontinuities
  in Cultural Conditioning)(1938)?????(Patterns
  of Culture)(1934)
• Believe that human beings show far greater
  plasticity and modifiability than animals, and
  humans were from the time of birth on conditioned
  by the cultural setting, so that human species
  has made great progress and there are wide
  intercultural differences

79
7. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence

• Ruth Benedicts theory of cultural conditioning
• Growth was a gradual, smooth, and continuous
  process, if natural growth is uninfluenced by
  social-environmental forces
• However, to the extent that social groups
  introduce requirements, restrictions,
  differential treatment, and expectations,
  discontinuities would emerge

80
7. Cultural anthropological perspectives on
adolescence

• Ruth Benedicts theory of cultural conditioning
• In modern societies, the difference between a
  child and an adult and even between adolescents
  of different ages is delineated sharply, by
  legal definition, by different schools, and
  different grades for different ages
• Because of the differences or discontinuities
  between childhood to adulthood, adaptation
  difficulties or problems were resulted
• In contrast, children in some primitive societies
  follow a relatively continuous growth pattern
• Three specific aspects of discontinuity versus
  continuity in cultural conditioning responsible
  versus nonresponsible status role dominance
  versus submission contrasted sexual roles

81
8. Ecological perspectives of human
development

• ????????????????
• ??/??
• ????
• ???(microsytem)
• ????(mesosystem)
• ????(exosystem)
• ???(macrosystem)
• ??????(chronosystem)

82
Ecological model of human development
83
8. Ecological perspectives of human
development

• Life Course theory by Glen Elder Jr
• Emphasis on the life course or time-dimension of
  development
• Believed that human life span can be best
  understood by considering lives in their
  historical time and place, the timing of social
  roles and life events, the interdependence or
  connections among lives, and the role of human
  agency and social constraints in decision making

84
8. Ecological perspectives of human
development

• Life Course theory
• Human lives in historical time and place family
  obligation of current adolescents and their
  parents, grandparents perspectives on
  consumptions of current adolescents and their
  parents morality and values of current
  adolescents and their parents
• Linked lives such as parental divorce,
  unemployment, parental conflicts, etc.
• The timing of lives whether or not a person
  experiences certain events at a given time
• Human agency and social constraints peoples
  choice and planning of life

85
Summary
?? ??/?? ??/??? ??/?? ???
?????? ???????????????? ?????????????????? ??????????????????????? ?????
???? ??????????? ??? ?? ????
????????? ????????????????????????? ???? ??????????????(?)???? ?????
86
Summary
?? ??/?? ??/??? ??/?? ???
????? ?? ?? ??? ?????
????? ????? ????????????????????????????????,??????????(?????)???? ?? ????
????? ????? ?????? ?? ????
87
Questions

• What kind of implications can be drawn from the
  theoretical perspectives for the development of
  adolescents
• Or, what kind of picture you can draw for a
  typical adolescent based on the theoretical
  perspectives and the related evidence
• What kind of implications can be drawn from the
  theoretical perspectives for empirical research
  on adolescents, either in terms of research
  issues or in terms of implications for research
  design
• What is the relationship between theories and
  real development of adolescents

88
???????

• 1. ??
• 2. ??
• 3. ???
• ???????????????,????????????????????????,?????????
  ??????
• 4. ???????????????
• 5. ?????
• 6. ??/??

89
???????

• 7. ????
• 8. ????????
• 9. ????????
• 10. ???????
• 11. ????????????????
• 12. ?????????????????
• 13. ???????????????
• 14. ????(explain things in a way that makes good
  sense)

90

• The purpose of the overview of the theoretical
  perspectives on adolescence is to demonstrate how
  each of the views has helped us to gain a better
  understanding of the nature of adolescence,
• And if possible, what research issues will be
  produced from the theoretical perspectives

91

• ???????????????,??????????????????,??????????
• David R.
  Shaffer (2004)