Scientific Writing (Introduction)

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Scientific Writing An Introduction
Writing Guidelines for Students http//writing.eng
.vt.edu/
The Craft of Scientific Writing 3rd edition
(Springer-Verlag, 1996)
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How well you communicate affects your career
Survey (Richard M. Davis) Successful engineers
spent 25 of work week writing
Survey (Wisconsin) Professional engineers found
writing their most useful subject in college
Survey (Virginia Tech) Recruiters claim that
engineers need more work on their writing
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How well you communicate affects the well-being
of others
Explosion was caused by failure of O-rings in the
solid rocket boosters Engineers knew of O-ring
problems well before fatal launch Engineers
failed to communicate seriousness of problem
Report, 1986
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Scientists and engineers are called upon to
communicate in many different situations
Conferences Lectures Meetings Posters
Reports Articles Proposals Web Pages
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Scientific writing differs from other kinds of
writing

• Subject Matter

Franklin, 1952
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You should begin the writing process by analyzing
your constraints
Who they are What they know Why they will
read How they will read
Audience
Format Formality Politics and ethics Process and
deadline
Occasion
To inform To persuade
Purpose
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Three aspects of writing affect the way that
readers assess your documents
Content
Style
Form
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Style is the way you communicate the content to
the audience
style
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Form embodies the format and mechanics of the
writing
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We can split the writing process into stages
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Structure the Strategy of Style
If a man can group his ideas, then he is a
writer. Robert Louis Stevenson
Ending
Middle
Beginning
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The organization of a scientific document can be
viewed as a beginning, middle, and ending
Conclusions Back Matter
Ending
Middle Sections
Middle
Title Summary Introduction
Beginning
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Beginnings prepare readers for understanding the
work
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Several names for summaries exist
Summary
Technical Abstract
Informative Abstract
Abstract
Descriptive Abstract
Executive Summary
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A document's introduction prepares readers for
the discussion
Topic?
Importance?
Background?
Arrangement?
Introduction
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The introduction defines the scopeand
limitations of the work
scope
Proposed Study on Effects of Alcohol on Life
Expectancy
Ten-year study
Three classes of drinkers non-drinkers
moderate drinkers heavy drinkers
Men surveyed
limitations
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Common strategies exist for the middles of
scientific reports
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Common strategies exist for the middles of
scientific reports
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Section headings should be descriptive and
parallel
Non-Parallel Non-Descriptive
Introduction Background Marx Generators Line
Pulse Beam Generation Transporting
Beam Pellets Results Conclusions
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Many journal articles follow a set organization
named IMRaD
Introduction
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In a strong ending, you analyze resultsand give
a future perspective
Conclusions
Analyze results from overall perspective
Analysis of Results
Future Perspective
Several options Make recommendations Discuss
future work Repeat limitations
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Failing to cite the contribution of others can be
a fatal flaw in your career
Franklin, 1952
James Watson surreptitiously looked at Rosalind
Franklins work
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Avoiding Common Errors of Grammar One of the
most important skills a writer can have is the
ability to compose clear, complete sentences. The
sentence is the basic unit of communication in
all forms of English. Funk, McMahan, and
Day Elements of Grammar
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Not all mechanical errors bother readers in the
same way
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The most important aspect of grammaris
understanding what a sentence is
Sentence A sentence is group of words with a
subject and a verb that expresses a complete
thought.
Fragment A fragment being a group of words that
either is missing a subject or a verb or does not
express a complete thought.
Run-on A run-on is two or more independent
clauses that are not joined properly, for
instance, a common mistake is to have a comma
between the clauses.
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Which are sentences (S), fragments (F), or
run-ons (RO)?
Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more
common in the earth than zinc, copper, or
nickel. Although carbon dioxide occurs
naturally, man has dramatically increased its
concentration this past century. Several systems
can detect plastic explosives. For example,
thermal neutron activation systems, nitrogen
sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray systems.
RO
S
S / F
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Shown in yellow are corrections to the errors
from the previous slide
Although rubidium has no major uses, it is more
common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has
dramatically increased its concentration this
past century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives.
Examples include thermal neutron activation
systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced
x-ray systems.
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Note that there are several ways to correct each
of these errors
Rubidium has no major uses however, it is more
common in the earth than zinc, copper, or
nickel. Rubidium has no major uses, but it is
more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or
nickel. Rubidium has no major uses. This metal,
however, is more common in the earth than zinc,
copper, or nickel.
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Making lists parallel is another important aspect
of grammar
Printed circuit board relays are limited to small
coil voltages, contact ratings, and lack
multi-pole configurations.
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Making lists parallel is another important aspect
of grammar
Animals that come in contact with oil can
develop rashes, sores, and may leave the area.
Animals that come in contact with oil can develop
rashes and sores, and may leave the area.
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Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is
also important in grammar
These proteins indicate to the body what hormones
should be given off among other things.
These proteins indicate, among other things, to
the body what hormones should be given off.
In meeting the staff of the Parks Department, the
greatest problem was that of water leakage.
From the staff of the Parks Department, we
learned that the greatest problem was that of
water leakage.
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Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities
Because the receiver presented the radiometer
with a high flux environment, it was mounted in a
silver-plated stainless steel container. If
you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday," do
not open it. It will erase everything on your
hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many
people as you can. This is a very malicious virus
and not many people know about it.
it???
this???
This???
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Avoiding Common Errors of Punctuation Punctuati
on marks are the traffic signs and signals placed
along the readers road. They tell him when to
slow down and when to stop, and sometimes they
warn him of the nature of the road ahead. Traffic
engineers do not always agree on what signs
should be used and where they should be placed,
and neither do writers or editors. Theodore M.
Bernstein The Careful Writer
,
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Punctuation rules are designed to have sentences
be read one way
Colon a colon introduces a formal list, long
quotation, equation, or definition. Semi-Colon
a semi-colon either joins two independent clauses
(closely linked in thought) or separates complex
items in a list. Dash a dash acts as a
parenthesis to separate items that cannot be
separated by commas. Comma a comma separates
details in a sentence.
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A colon introduces a formal list, long quotation,
equation, or definition
We studied five types of marsupials opossums,
bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos. The
laboratory growth of this crystal made possible a
new astronomical tool a gamma-ray detector with
high-energy resolution.
In formal writing, what is on the left side of
the colon should stand alone as a separate
sentence. Once the list ends, the sentence ends.
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Although equations are separated by white space,
they should be treated as part of the sentence
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Commas separate introductory phrases and clauses
After cooling the exhaust gases continue to
expand.
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Commas separate parenthetical details
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively
inexpensive require the operators attention.
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Commas separate items in a list
Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred
through spills when loading vehicles, spills and
over-spills when filling the tanks, leaks from
supply pipes and corroded welds, rust holes and
cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.
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Two common usage errors are possessives and
subject-verb disagreements
The criteria for assessing the environmental
effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next
section. So far, the daily number of engineers
applying (has / have) remained constant. The
goggles protect a (persons / persons) eyes from
any damaging effects that a laser could
cause. In accordance with my (boss / bosss)
schedule, the first series of computers was
replaced.
are
has
persons
bosss
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The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the
document depend upon position
Introduction This report presents a design for
connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11
microcontroller.
Results and Discussion ...Figure 1 shows the
circuit that connects the light emitting diodes
to the HC11 microcontroller.
Conclusions This report has presented a design
for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11
microcontroller. As was shown in Figure 1, the
circuit...
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Use numerals when referring to measurements
When to use numerals Specific measurements 3
volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s Percentages 15
percent Monetary figures 3000 Large numerals 5
million
When to write out numbers Counting (one or two
words) twenty-three gages Informal
measurements two hours First word of
sentence Thirty-three...
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Languagethe Way We Use Words
Short words are the best, and short words when
old are best of all. Winston Churchill
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Generalities that are not anchored with
specifics are soon forgotten
After recognizing some problems with the
solar mirrors, we took subsequent corrective
measures.
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For precise language, you should avoid
over-specifying details
The number of particular hydrocarbon
combinations in our study is enormous. For
example, the number of possible C20H42 is
366,319 and the number for C40H82 is
62,491,178,805,831.
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For precision, you must choose theappropriate
level of detail
Operations at the plant stopped
momentarily because the thermal storage charging
system desuperheater attemperator valve was
replaced.
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Complex wording buries ideas
The goal of this study is to develop a
commerciali- zation strategy for solar energy
systems by analyzing factors impeding early
commercial projects (i.e., SOLAR ONE) and by
identifying the potential actions that can
facilitate the viability of the projects.
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Stacking adjectives before nouns swallows the
ideas
Solar One is a 10 megawatt solar thermal
electric central receiver Barstow power pilot
plant.
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Complex sentences misdirect readers
The goal of the work was to confirm the nature of
electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform
fields at high pressures and electrode gaps
which approach those obtained in engineering
practice, prior to the deter-mination of the
processes which set the criterion for breakdown
in the above-mentioned gas in uniform and
non-uniform fields of engineering significance.
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The more muddled the original, the more
revisions are needed to streamline it
At high pressures (760 torr) and typical
electrode gap distances (1 mm), the electrical
breakdown of nitrogen was studied in uniform
fields.
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An ambiguity is a group of words that can have
more than one meaning
We examined neat methanol and ethanol and
methanol and ethanol with 10 water.
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Ambiguities occur for many reasons
The proposed schedule is discussed below for the
next four years.
?????????
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Pretentious diction often causes problems with
tone

• about
• cause bring about
• carry out
• individual
• can operate
• use

approximately facilitate implement
individualized operationability utilization
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Weak verbs hide the energy of your work
A new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides
from diesel exhaust engines is presented. Flow
tube experiments to test this process are
discussed. The percentage decrease in nitrogen
oxide emissions is revealed.
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A formal definition has a specific form
noun naming class to which noun term belongs
information to separate noun term from other
terms in class
noun term

Bremsstrahlung the radiation emitted by a
charged particle that is accelerated in the
Coulomb force field of a nucleus.
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To tighten your writing, eliminate redundancies
and writing zeroes
Vibration measurements made in the course of the
Titan flight test program were complicated by the
presence of intense high-frequency excitation of
the vehicle shell structure during the re-entry
phase of the flight.
Vibration measurements made in the Titan flight
were complicated by intense high-frequency
excitation of the vehicle shell during re-entry.
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Examples anchor abstract generalities
By the late Middle Ages, cities throughout Europe
were building Gothic cathedrals. The only way,
however, that architects could test a new design
was to build the cathedral, a process that took
more than forty years. Unfortunately, many
cathedrals caved in during or after construction.
What took forty years to test in the Middle Ages
could have been done in minutes on a
supercomputer.
William Wilson
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When sentence openers do not vary, the sentences
do not seem to connect
Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. A
cloud of hot rock and gas surged northward from
its collapsing slope. The cloud devastated more
than 500 square kilometers of forests and lakes.
The effects of Mount St. Helens were well
documented with geophysical instruments. The
origin of the eruption is not well understood.
Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid
expansion of steam. Some scientists believe the
steam comes from groundwater heated by the magma.
Other scientists believe the steam comes from
water originally dissolved in the magma. We need
to understand the source of steam in volcanic
eruptions. We need to determine how much water
the magma contains.
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Varying sentence openers allows for more kinds of
transitions between sentences
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Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
In minutes, the mountain emitted
prepositional phrase
Recently, debate has arisen...
adverb
Although the exact time of the eruption surprised
scientists, evidence had been collected...
dependent clause
To understand the eruption, we have to...
infinitive phrase
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Varying sentence openers enlivens the writing and
allows connections
Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. Its
slope collapsing, the mountain emitted a cloud of
hot rock and gas. In minutes, the cloud
devastated more than 500 square kilometers of
forests and lakes. Although the effects of the
eruption were well documented, the origin is not
well understood. Volcanic explosions are driven
by a rapid expansion of steam. Recently, debate
has arisen over the source for the steam. Is it
groundwater heated by magma or water originally
dissolved in the magma itself? To understand the
source of steam in volcanic eruptions, we need to
determine how much water the magma contains.
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The Craft of Editing
Editing isnt a cosmetic process. Its a thinking
process. Richard Rhodes, author Making of the
Atomic Bomb