Chapter 11 Observation Methods

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Chapter 11Observation Methods
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When is Observation Scientific?

• YOU SEE, BUT YOU DO NOT OBSERVE. Sherlock
  Holmes
• Scientific Observation is the systematic process
  of recording the behavioral patterns of people,
  objects, and occurrences without questioning or
  communicating with them.
• There are four conditions for scientific
  observation
• Serves a formulated research purpose
• Planned systematically
• Recorded systematically
• Subjected to checks or controls on validity and
  reliability

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What can be Observed?

• Physical actions
• Verbal behavior
• Expressive behavior
• Spatial relations and locations
• Temporal patterns
• Response Latency is the amount of time necessary
  to make a choice between two alternatives used
  as a measure of the strength of preference.
• Physical Objects
• Verbal and pictorial records

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What Can Be Observed
Phenomena Example
Human behavior or physical Shoppers
movement action pattern in a store Verbal
behavior Statements made by airline
travelers who wait in line Expressive
behavior Facial expressions, tone of voice,
and other form of body language
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What Can Be Observed
Phenomena Example
Spatial relations How close visitors at an and
locations art museum stand to
paintings Temporal patterns How long fast-food
customers wait for their order to be
served Physical objects What brand name items
are stored in consumers pantries Verbal
and Pictorial Bar codes on product
packages Records
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Types of Observation

• Human versus mechanical observation
• Mechanical observation is situation in which
  video cameras, traffic counters, and other
  machines help observe and record behavior.
• Visible versus hidden observation
• Visible observation is situation in which the
  observers presence is known to the subject.
• Hidden observation is situation in which the
  subject is unaware that observation is taking
  place.
• Direct versus scientifically contrived
  observation
• Direct observation is a straightforward attempt
  to observe and record what naturally occurs the
  investigator does not create artificial
  situation.
• Contrived observation is observation in which the
  investigator creates an artificial environment in
  order to test a hypothesis.

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Types of Observation

• Participant observation is situation in which an
  observer gains firsthand knowledge by being in or
  around the social setting being investigated.
• Physical-trace Evidence is a visible mark of some
  past event or occurrence.
• Content Analysis is a research technique for the
  objective, systematic, and quantitative
  description of the manifest content of
  communication.

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Examples of Mechanical Observation

• Eye Tracking Monitor records how the subject
  actually reads or views an advertisement, measure
  unconscious eye movements.
• Pupilometer is a device used to observe and
  record changes in the diameter of the pupils of a
  subjects eyes.
• Psychogalvanometer is a device that measures
  galvanic skin response, a measure of involuntary
  changes in the electrical resistance of the skin.
• Voice Pitch Analysis is a physiological
  measurement technique that records abnormal
  frequencies in the voice that are supposed to
  reflect emotional reactions to various stimuli.
• Optical Scanners and Bar Codes

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Advantages of Observation

• Communication with respondent is not necessary
  (Unobtrusive)
• Data without distortions due to self-report
  (e.g. without social desirability) Bias
• No need to rely on respondents memory
• Nonverbal behavior data may be obtained
• Certain data may be obtained more quickly
• Environmental conditions may be recorded
• May be combined with survey to provide
  supplemental evidence

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Disadvantages of Observation

• Cognitive phenomena cannot be observed
• Interpretation of data may be a problem
• Not all activity can be recorded
• Only short periods can be observed
• Observer bias possible
• Possible invasion of privacy