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Title: Paragraphs and essays


1
Paragraphs and essays
  • I. ways of developing paragraphs
  • 1. Development by time
  • In telling a story or recounting an event, the
    easiest and clearest way is to describe things in
    order of time earlier things are mentioned
    before later things, the first thing first and
    the last thing last. This method is also called
    chronological sequencing.

2
e.g. page 89
  • My heart gave a leap when I heard the
    announcement that our train would soon arrive at
    its destinationBeijing. Like other passengers, I
    began to collect my things and put my mug, towel,
    atlas, apples, and other things into my bag. To
    the tune of a beautiful song the train pulled
    into the station and gently stopped by a
    platform. I walked out of the train and was
    carried forward by the stream of people into an
    underground passage and then into a big hall. As
    I stepped out of the station, I was dazzled by
    the bright autumn skies of Beijing. Though I had
    been on the train for more than thirty hours and
    spent a sleepless night, I didnt feel tired at
    all, and I believed my days in Beijing would be
    as sunny as the skies.

3
Study the following expressions often used in
describing chronological relations page 118
  • now nowadays
  • when before after while during
  • between _____ and _____
  • in _____ (year)
  • since _____
  • later earlier formerly etc.
  • at the turn of the century (decade) etc.
  • in the first half of the century, etc.
  • in the 1900s, etc.

4
  • at birth in childhood in infancy in
    adolescence as an adult in adulthood in old
    age at death
  • simultaneously simultaneous with at the same
    time as
  • the former the latter
  • previous previously prior to
  • first second etc.
  • in the first place in the second place, etc. to
    begin with next then subsequently in the next
    place
  • next then subsequently in the next place
  • in conclusion finally lastly in the end

5
2. Development by process
  • chronological sequence and a step-by-step
    description.
  • imperative sentences and sentences with the
    indefinite pronoun you as the subject are often
    used.
  • the present tense if applicable.

6
e.g. Page 90
  • Once you encounter a person who has stopped
    breathing, you should begin immediately to do
    mouth-to-mouth breathing. First, place the
    victim on his back and remove any foreign matter
    from his mouth with your fingers. Then tilt his
    head backwards, so that his chin is pointing up.
    Next, pull his mouth open and his jaw forward,
    pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air which
    you blow into his mouth from escaping through his
    nose. Then place your mouth tightly over the
    victims. Blow into his mouth until you see his
    chest rise. Then turn your head to the side and
    listen for the outrush of air which indicates an
    air exchange. Repeat the process

7
Study the following phrases often used in writing
process descriptions page 121
  • occur before at this point
  • become until at the same time
  • happen while by means of
  • grow as through the use of
  • take place once be carried out
  • then change into as soon as

8
Exercises
  • Study the following sentences and put them
    together to form a paragraph. The paragraph
    should give a precise description of what is
    involved in the marking of examination papers in
    foreign language examinations in Britain. Page121
    and page 122

9
  • (1) Problem papers are marked and returned to the
    chief examiner for remarking.
  • (2) It is not customary in Britain to be informed
    of an examination result sooner than about two
    months from the time the examination was taken.
  • (3) After the paper has been completed by the
    candidate, it is collected in by the invigilator.
  • (4) The papers are marked initially by a single
    examiner, working with clear, predetermined
    marking guidelines.
  • (5) In order to sample the marking the chief
    examiner selects a percentage of the papers from
    all examiners and marks them himself, or has them
    marked by a second marker.
  • (6) The papers are then sent by recorded delivery
    to the chief examiner, who redistributes them for
    marking.
  • (7) The invigilator bundles the papers together
    and places them, counted and labelled, in an
    envelope.

10
Key
  • 1 (3) After the paper has been completed by the
    candidate, it is collected in by the invigilator.
  • 2 (7) The invigilator bundles the papers
    together and places them, counted and labelled,
    in an envelope.
  • 3 (6) The papers are then sent by recorded
    delivery to the chief examiner, who redistributes
    them for marking.
  • 4 (4) The papers are marked initially by a single
    examiner, working with clear, predetermined
    marking guidelines.
  • 5 (1) Problem papers are marked and returned to
    the chief examiner for remarking.
  • 6 (5) In order to sample the marking the chief
    examiner selects a percentage of the papers from
    all examiners and marks them himself, or has them
    marked by a second marker.
  • 7 (2) It is not customary in Britain to be
    informed of an examination result sooner than
    about two months from the time the examination
    was taken.

11
3. Development by space
  • the space relationships between different parts
  • arranging our description accordingly.

12
e.g. page 92
  • Mr. Cook, a renowned American historian, arranges
    the books on his bookshelves in a unique way. In
    the upper right hand corner, there are books
    about the development of the early colonies in
    New England and the War of Independence. Right
    under them can be found books on the slave trade,
    the plantation system and the growth of the
    southern states. The left side of the shelf
    contains hundreds of books concerning subjects of
    the Westward Movement, Indian culture, the
    cowboys contributions so American society and
    the Gold Rush in California. From the description
    above, one can see that Mr. Cook regards his
    bookshelves as a map of the U.S. and arranges his
    history books accordingly. It is odd, but it is
    convenient.

13
  • This paragraph, which describes the arrangement
    of books, is simple and clear. The positions of
    the books are described in order that is easy to
    follow first from the upper right to the lower
    right, and then to the left.

14
Study the following expression for describing
spacial relationships
  • where
  • in which to which from which etc.
  • under over inside beside on top of etc.
  • along through as far as etc.
  • north northern south southern etc.
  • at the back in front in the middle etc.
  • adjacent parallel rectangle
  • corresponding parallel to semicircle
  • distance perpendicular to slope
  • midpoint plane space
  • interior opposite surface
  • diagonal overlapping vertical
  • edge pyramid horizontal
  • limit exterior intersection

15
4.Development by example or generalization
  • examples or illustrations
  • clear, interesting, memorable, or convincing.

16
e.g. Page 93
  • This term several useful and interesting courses
    have been offered. An Introduction to European
    Culture, for instance, gives us a lot of
    background knowledge of the history of European
    philosophy, literature, and arts. From time to
    time we see slide shows of famous paintings and
    hear tapes of famous pieces of music, and they
    make the lectures all the more interesting.
    American Society and Culture is another course
    that attracts a large audience. The teacher, who
    visited the United States not long ago, discusses
    new trends and changes in American life as well
    as American history and traditions. We like these
    and other courses very much, because they help us
    not only to improve our English but also to
    broaden our vision.

17
  • In this paragraph there are two examples that
    explain why certain courses are useful and
    interesting as is said in the first sentence.

18
  • Details or example are usually arranged in
    climactic order the least important comes first,
    followed by others in order of increasing
    importance. Such a climactic sequence is followed
    in paragraphs developed not only by details or
    examples but also by comparison and contrast, by
    cause and effect, etc.

19
Study the following expressions for making
generalizations and giving specific details page
124
  • for example in substantiation
  • for instance to substantiate
  • for one thing as an illustration
  • to illustrate in one instance
  • in this instance in other words
  • as an example as follows
  • take ____ for example let me illustrate
  • consider ____ for example let me cite as
    proof
  • in practice according to
    statistics
  • according to statistical evidence always
  • generally all
  • generally speaking every
  • on the whole never

20
Exercises
  • 3. On the basis of the following information,
    make a generalization about a) Japanese workers
    B) Beijings environment. Page128 and page 129

21
(1)
  • A Japanese workers like work better than
    anything else.
  • B In 1985, Japanese workers worked an average of
    2168 hours a year. By comparison, people in
    Britain worked 1952 hours, in the U.S., 1924, in
    West Germany, 1659 and in France, 1643.
  • C Many Japanese workers feel that if they take a
    week off, they will lose touch with the business
    and fall behind other people.
  • D It is considered bad form in many offices in
    Japan to leave before the boss. So workers will
    continue to work until their boss finally puts on
    his jacket and heads out the door.
  • Japanese workers are very conscientious with
    their work.

22
(2)
  • A Dust storms used to make havoc of Beijing for
    an average of 20 days a year. Now the number
    of such awful days stands at around 10 annually.
  • B The volume of falling dust and suspended
    particles in the air in the capital declined 19
    and 12 percent respectively over the last five
    years.
  • C Over 70 per cent of the farmland around
    Beijing now enjoys protection given by the
    various forms of tree belts.
  • D The speed of the wind over the farmland is 30
    to 40 per cent slower, humidity has risen 5 to 15
    per cent, and grain output is generally 10 to 20
    per cent higher.
  • E Grain output in the same area increased by
    over one-fifth after the fields were surrounded
    by trees.
  • F Great efforts have been made in the past ten
    years to plant trees and build a forest network
    around Beijing.
  • G Trees are planted in an area larger than the
    33,000 hectares around the Miyun Reservoir.
  • Beijings environment is improved.

23
5. Development by comparison and contrast
  • the similarities between two or more persons or
    things of the same class
  • the differences between them.

24
There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs
of comparison and contrast.
  • block comparison / block contrast
  • alternating comparison / alternating contrast

25
The following paragraph is a good example of
alternating comparison. Page97
26
  • The same qualities that make people good
    houseguests make them good hospital patients.
    Good houseguests can expect a reasonable amount
    of service and effort on their behalf, and
    hospital patients can also Guests have to adjust
    to what is for them a change, and certainly
    hospital patients must do the same. No one
    appreciates a complaining, unpleasant,
    unappreciative houseguests, and the hospital
    staff is no exception. Houseguests who expect
    vast changes to be made for their benefit are not
    popular for long. Certainly nurses and other
    personnel with their routines feel the same way
    about patients in their care. Just as houseguests
    must make adjustments to enjoy their visits, so
    patients must make adjustments to make their
    stays reasonably pleasant and satisfying under
    the circumstances.

27
  • Alternating contrast is used when you want to
    point out several differences between two things
    or people without discussing them in great
    detail. You merely point out a special feature of
    one item and then state how the other item
    differs from it in that aspect.

28
  • Block comparison / contrast is suitable when the
    writer wants to treat points of similarity /
    difference in depth. This type of comparison/
    difference is often used when the points of
    similarity /difference discussed are not many but
    complex, and require much explanation.

29
  • Examples of alternating contrast and block
    comparison and block contrast can be found in our
    textbook, page 97, page98, and page 99.

30
Study the following expressions often used in
making comparison and contrast page 130 and 131
  • To compare
  • similar to at the same rate as
  • similarly as
  • like, alike just as
  • likewise in like manner
  • correspond to in the same way
  • correspondingly to have _____ in common
  • resemble common characteristics,
    etc.
  • resemblance to be parallel in _____
  • almost the same as both

31
To contrast
  • differ from unlike
  • however in contrast to
  • otherwise in opposition to
  • still on the contrary
  • nevertheless on the opposite side
  • even so on the other hand
  • a larger (smaller) percentage than
  • but less than
  • different from although
  • more than faster than, etc.
  • while

32
Exercises
  • 2. Read the following sentences and indicate if
    they are sentences of comparison or contrast.
    Page 131
  • (1) Though both are forms of humor, comedy is
    different from satire. (contrast)
  • (2) In 2000 the world will surely be different
    from what it is today. (contrast)
  • (3) Fashions in furniture change just as clothing
    fashions do. (comparison)
  • (4) Buying a car requires as much skill as
    selling one. (comparison)
  • (5) Badminton is as important a sport in
    Indonesia as football in the United States.
    (comparison)
  • (6) There is more hard work in writing than in
    physical labor. (contrast)
  • (7) Ballet is a more exhausting art than
    gymnastics. (contrast)
  • (8) Friendship, like love, is often discussed
    but seldom understood (comparison)

33
3. Write statements of contrast to fit the
following patterns (you may need a word or a
phrase to complete the sentence). Page 132
  • (1) TV and newspapers are different in many ways
    even though their aims may be the same.
  • (2) Sound travels faster through metal than
    through water/air.
  • (3) Before 1880 many people died of smallpox
    however, the percentage of deaths from smallpox
    is small today.
  • (4) Some children grow taller /bigger than other
    children because of nutritional differences.
  • (5) In contrast to living on the farm, living in
    the city is an intense struggle to survive in a
    concrete wasteland.
  • (6) Per capita earnings in Japan different from
    those in South Korea.

34
4. Write statements of comparison to fit the
following patterns (you may need a word or a
phrase to complete the sentence).
  • (1) The development of transportation and the
    development of communications are parallel in
    many ways.
  • (2) Anshan in the Northease of China and
    Panzhihua in the Southwest are both steel
    centers.
  • (3) Despite centuries of change, human beings and
    their primitive ancestors have many traits in
    common.
  • (4) Neither badminton nor table tennis requires a
    large playing area.
  • (5) Although the last days of the Roman Empire
    may at first appear very different from those of
    the United States today, there are ominous
    resemblances/similarities.

35
6. Development by cause and effect
36
  • Sound reasoning or logic is naturally the most
    important quality of any causal analysis. But it
    is not always easy to explain causes and effects
    clearly and logically. One reason for this is
    that an effect may have many causes and a cause
    may have many effects. So we must be thorough in
    our discussion and careful in our selection of
    details.

37
Two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed
by cause and effect.
  • The first method is to state an effect and devote
    the rest of the paragraph to examining the
    causes.

38
Lets look at the example in the book, page 102.
  • One might wonder why, after the Norman Conquest,
    French did not become the national language,
    replacing English entirely. The reason is that
    the Conquest was not a national migration, as the
    earlier Anglo-Saxon invasion had been. Great
    numbers of Normans came to England, but they came
    as rulers and landlords. French became the
    language of the court, the language of the
    nobility, the language of polite society, the
    language of literature. But it did not replace
    English as the language of the people. There must
    always have been hundreds of towns and villages
    in which French was never heard except when
    visitors of high station passed through.Paul
    Roverts

39
  • In this paragraph, the opening sentence raises
    the question of why the Norman Conquest did not,
    as might have been expected, make England a
    French-speaking country. This sentence states an
    effect or result of the Conquest. The sentences
    that follow develop the controlling idea by
    explaining the causes.

40
  • The second method is to state a cause and then
    mention or predict the effects.
  • Suppose the topic sentence is More and more
    fertile land in China is taken up by new
    buildings. In the rest of the paragraph the
    effects of this development should be mentioned,
    such as the reduction of the grain output,
    increasing environmental problems, too many
    peasants moving into the cities, etc.

41
Lets look at the example in the book, page 103.
  • One might wonder why, after the Norman Conquest,
    French did not become the national language,
    replacing English entirely. The reason is that
    the Conquest was not a national migration, as the
    earlier Anglo-Saxon invasion had been. Great
    numbers of Normans came to England, but they came
    as rulers and landlords. French became the
    language of the court, the language of the
    nobility, the language of polite society, the
    language of literature. But it did not replace
    English as the language of the people. There must
    always have been hundreds of towns and villages
    in which French was never heard except when
    visitors of high station passed through.Paul
    Roverts

42
  • In next paragraph, the topic sentence states a
    cause, and then the writer predicts what effects
    the surge of demand for oil will bring to
    American society.

43
Study the following expressions for discussing
cause and effect Page 134 and page 135
  • so consequently thus
  • therefore accordingly because
    of
  • for this reason owing to for
    this reason
  • as a result since hence
  • due to because
  • as a result of as the
    effect of
  • the result of so that thanks
    to
  • result in so ____ that the
    consequence of
  • out of have an effect on owe ____
    to
  • the reason for the cause of It
    follows that
  • now that seeing that for fear
    that
  • such _____ that so as ____ to make __
    possible
  • make it possible /impossible for ____ to ____

44
Exercises
  • 2. Decide whether the following sentences express
    Cause and Effect or things that happened in
    chronological order. Page 135
  • (1) Peter and Mark went to the park yesterday.
    They had barbecue there. (Chronological order)
  • (2) Footsteps echoed down the empty path towards
    Mary, and she was afraid. (Cause and Effect)
  • (3) John has a Vitamin C deficiency. He has a
    skin disease.(Cause and Effect)
  • (4) Bob was very sleepy. He sat nodding in his
    car. (Cause and Effect)
  • (5) There are a loud knock at the door
    downstairs. The knock woke me out of a sound
    sleep. (Cause and Effect)
  • (6) Susan did not feel well. She did not turn up.
    (Cause and Effect)

45
3. Study the following information. In the blank
before each sentence, write C if it is a
statement of Cause or E if it is a statement of
Effect. Page 136
46
(1) Topic Music in the United States
  • E A Popular music showed a definite change in the
    1950sa movement away from the big band sound
    that had appealed to those growing up in the
    1920s, 1930s, and 1940s.
  • C B Teenagers became more affluent and thus had
    the money to buy records by performers like Elvis
    Presley and Ray Charles.
  • C C The black population finally had the money in
    the 1950s to support the singers and musicians
    they had preferred for years.
  • C D A large proportion of the adult white
    population that had been poor during the
    depression began to rebel against the
    sophisticated lyrics and sounds of the big band
    musicians.
  • C E The new afflence of groups of people who had
    previously had little money to spend on
    entertainment paved the way for the emergence of
    gospel, blues, and rock music.

47
(2) Topic Tornados
  • C A Tornados are formed when warm, moist air
    spreads northward, meeting with cold air flowing
    from the north and west above it.
  • E B The meeting of cold and warm air starts the
    characteristic circular motion.
  • E C The circular motion quickly builds up and
    becomes forceful enough to tear buildings apart
    and uproot trees.
  • E D Not only are tornados able to move huge
    objects but they also occasionally do odd things,
    such as stripping a chicken of its feathers
    quickly.

48
(3) Drunk drivers
  • C A Excessive amounts of alcohol cause one to
    lose ones sense of responsibility.
  • E B Excessive amounts of alcohol slow reaction
    time and seriously impair depth perception.
  • E C The inebriated driver is unable to make quick
    logical decisions and is often responsible for
    accidents causing serious injuries or death.
  • E D Drunk drivers are dangerous.
  • E E Drunk driver pose a serious threat to
    themselves as well as to others.

49
7. Development by classification
  • Sort things into categories according to their
    characteristics.
  • We classify many things trees, rivers, cities,
    companies, college students.
  • We group things according to their similarities
    and differences. If we classify rivers, we
    separate them into wide ones, narrow ones, long
    ones, short ones, deep ones, and shallow ones.
    Apples may be classified according to size, place
    of origin, color, price, or quality.

50
Parallelism
  • If we classify types of sports, we may speak of
    track and field events, swimming, ball games,
    gymnastics, etc.
  • If we classified sports into jumping, ball games,
    running, floor exercise and backstroke, we would
    violate parallelism, for ball games should be
    considered a general category, while jumping and
    running are subcategories of the track and field
    events gymnastics is a general category, and
    floor exercise a particular form of it.
  • In short, in a good classification the parts must
    be paralleled, and they should add up to the
    whole subject.

51
In the following paragraph, the author divides
book owners into three main types and then
describes each of them. Page 104
  • There are three kinds of book owners. The first
    has all the standard sets and best
    sellers--unread, untouched. (This deluded
    individual owns woodpulp and ink, not books.) The
    second has a great many books--a few of them read
    through, most of them dipped into, but all of
    them as clean and shiny as the day they were
    bought. (This person would probably like to make
    books his own, but is restrained by a false
    respect for their physical appearance.) The third
    has a few books or many --every one of them
    dog-eard and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by
    continual use, marked and scribbled in from front
    to back. (This man owns books.) --Mortimer
    J. Addler

52
Study the following expressions for
classification
  • main kinds of unimportant
  • major kinds of insignificant
  • basic kinds similar
  • fundamental dissimilar
  • significant contradictory
  • important opposing
  • primary, secondary opposite
  • minor contrasting

53
  • clearly distinguishable
  • easily distinguished
  • incontestable differences
  • incontestable similarities
  • classify
  • divide

54
  • kinds types attributes
  • methods sources characteristics
  • parts regions factors
  • divisions origins eras
  • categories bases time
  • classes qualities aspects

55
  • classifications
  • mutually exclusive
  • according to ______
  • with respect to ______
  • _________ falls into _____ categories
  • ______ can be divided into _____ classes

56
Exercises
  • 3. in the blank before each of the following
    sentences, write G if it is a statement of
    GENERALIZATION or C if it is a statement of
    CLASSIFICATION. Page 139

57
  • G (1) Democracy is a state of mind.
  • G (2) Some sports require as high a degree of
    eye-mind-hand coordination as brain surgery.
  • C (3) Gamblers fall into several classes,
    depending upon what their stakes are.
  • G (4) Students should not be allowed to smoke in
    the classroom.
  • C (5) Many aspects of the American character can
    be attributed to the American frontier.
  • C (6) United States history as reflected by the
    concentration of people in cities can be divided
    two clearly distinguishable periods.
  • G (7) A number of foreign countries were
    directly involved in U.S. territorial expansion.
  • G (8) A wild stallion is powerful and fierce.
  • C (9) Everyone has three kinds of "friends" he
    wants to forget.

58
8. Development by definition
  • three basic ways to define a word or term
  • to give a synonym, e.g. "To mend means to
    repair." "A fellow is a man or a boy."
  • to use a sentence (often with an attributive
    clause),e.g. "Ink is colored water which we use
    for writing."
  • to write a paragraph or even an essay.

59
When we give a definition, we should observe
certain principles.
  • First, we should avoid circular definitions.
  • "Democracy is the democratic process" and "An
    astronomer is one who studies astronomy" are
    circular definitions. When words are defined in
    terms of themselves, no one's understanding is
    improved.

60
  • Second, we should avoid long lists of synonyms if
    the term to be defined is an abstract one.
  • "By imagination, I mean the power to form mental
    images of objects, the power to form new ideas,
    the gift of employing images in writing, and the
    tendency to attribute reality to unreal things,
    situations and states."

61
  • Third, we should avoid loaded definitions.
  • Loaded definitions do not explain terms but make
    an immediate appeal for emotional approval.
  • "By state enterprise I mean high cost and poor
    efficiency."
  • "By state enterprise I mean one of the great
    blessings of democratic planning."

62
The following paragraphs are good examples of
clear and objective definition. Page 106
  • A "liberated woman" is simply a woman who
    controls her own life, rather than allowing it to
    be controlled by other people, traditions, or
    expectations. A "liberated woman" can be found
    pursuing any line of work, including housework,
    or no work at all. She may or may not be married
    she may or may not have borne children. She may
    belong to any race she may have attained any
    age. She may be poor or wealthy, educated or
    illiterate. She need have only one trait in
    common with her "liberated sisters" she makes
    her own choices, whether they be the colors on
    her walls or the advanced degrees she seeks. She
    acts of her own volition, responsible to herself,
    and not out of fear of what her mother, lover, or
    neighbor might say.
    --Klarner W. Harp

63
Study the following definitions. Decide which are
good ones and which are inadequate. Page 142
  • to define to explain
  • in definition in explanation
  • in other words by ____ is meant
  • to clarify to paraphrase
  • in clarification
  • form aspect
  • species characteristic
  • class method
  • device property
  • type condition
  • kind attribute
  • category

64
9. Development by a combination of methods
  • a combination of methods in order to present
    their ideas in an impressive and convincing
    manner.

65
e.g Page 108
  • Kin-tay often told Kizzy stories about himself.
    He said that he had been near his village in
    Africa, chopping wood to make a drum, when he had
    been set upon by four men, overwhelmed, and
    kidnapped into slavery. When Kizzy grew up and
    became a mother, she told her son these stores,
    and he in turn would tell his children. His
    granddaughter became my grandmother, and she
    pumped that saga into me as if it were plasma,
    until I knew by rote the story of the African,
    and the subsequent generational wending of our
    family through cotton and tobacco plantations
    into the Civil War and then freedom.
    --Alex Haley

66
  • Two methods are clearly seen in this paragraph
    development by time and development by cause and
    effect.

67
Exercises
  • Computer programming offers many interesting job
    opportunities.(examples)

68
Performing a winter checkup on your car can be
done easily if you follow the proper
procedure.(step by step)
69
Canadian and American football, although similar
in many ways, have some important differences.
(comparison and contrast)
70
The meaning of pedagogy may differ, depending
upon the lever of education one is talking about.
(definition)
71
Pasta can compliment many different kinds of
meals. (classification)
72
Jane had an interesting experience when she
visited France last fall. (time)
73
There were many factors that contributed to the
outbreak of World War II. (cause and effect)
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