Title: How to write a scientific paper or thesis chapter or report
1How to write a scientific paper(or thesis
chapter or report)
- Peter Billingsley
- School of Biological Sciences
- Generic Skills for Postgraduate Research Students
- April 2005
2Aims of the session
- To review current methods of paper/report/
chapter writing by attendees. - To suggest and try an alternative method that
works!!! - To consider additional factors associated with
paper writing including - Authorship
- Journal selection
- Use of literature and literature databases
- Responding to referees
3The perfect cup of tea
- Take 10 minutes
- Start writing a paper on how to make a cup of tea
- How did you do it?
- Review the approaches you have taken as a group
4The Lewis Carrol Method
5The Lewis Carrol Method why it doesnt work
- The structure of a Scientific Article
- Title
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Materials Methods
- Results
- Discussion
- Reference list
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7Your paper.. how?
- Do not dive in without a plan mind map to
outline
Relevant background to the problem
A O
Title abstract
Hypothesis
Materials and Methods
Introduction
Figures
My paper
Reading
Analysis
References
Results
References
Tables
Discussion
statistics
Text
8Your paper.. how?
- Before you begin writing (other than the
materials and methods) complete your data
analysis and preparation of figures and tables.
Have all these as polished, finished products
before starting to write the results. - Remove any extraneous information things you
are not going to use - Lay the figures and tables out in front of you,
and place them in the sequence in which you will
use them. Storyboard. - Is there anything missing? Do you need to do
more work or more analysis? - Write about each one in turn. Do not worry at
this stage about the number of words you are
using, just write. You can edit afterwards.
9Try it
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12Methods
Results
13Methods
Results
The main result a pot of tea made in standard
way
The testable variables
- Which tea tastes best?
- Does a tea cosy make the tea better or worse?
- Does it taste different in a mug or cup?
- Milk? Sugar? Sweetener? Lemon?
14Methods
Results
The main result a pot of tea made in standard
way
The testable variables
- Which tea tastes best?
- Does a tea cosy make the tea better or worse?
- Does it taste different in a mug or cup?
- Milk? Sugar? Sweetener? Lemon?
15But what do I do with these?
Only needed for leaf tea
Part of the standard cuppa?
16Methods
Results
The standard technique for reference, tea is
made this way. Control
The main result a pot of tea made in standard
way
The testable variables
- Which tea tastes best?
- Does a tea cosy make the tea better or worse?
- Does it taste different in a mug or cup?
- Milk? Sugar? Sweetener? Lemon?
The variables which tea tastes best (note
change in technique)?
The variables milk or lemon? Sugar or
sweetener?
17Methods
Results
18The story so far..
- You have results and methods laid out and easy to
write. - Gone from disorganised mix of results, methods
to an organised story - Gone from solo effort to working with others.
co-authors to come later!
19Now write the hypothesis aims and objectives for
your study
20Your paper.. How is it going?
Relevant background to the problem
A O
Title abstract
Hypothesis
Materials and Methods
Introduction
Figures
My paper
Reading
Analysis
References
Results
References
Tables
Discussion
statistics
Text
21Your report.. what next?
- Discussion
- Major results as temporary headings
- What does each result mean? Discuss with support
from the literature. - Do your results support/contradict other studies?
- Are there other analyses you could have done.
- Be critical and terse. Do not waffle.
- Introduction.
- Make sure that all major subject areas are
introduced. - Use references different from but complementary
to those used for the discussion. - Abstract the last job.
- Cover the major points of your work (not of
others) in the abstract. See Malaria Journal - The abstract should tell the reader your results,
not just techniques.
22But before you start all this
- Where are you going to submit your article?
- Generic journal? Nature/Science?
- Subject specific journal?
- Technique journal?
- Impact Factors do you and your supervisor have
a strategy? - Instructions to authors
- Read them, stick to them
- Must get agreement on this from all co-authors
before you start.. Or at least when the results
storyboard is run through. - (Storyboard great practice for a talk etc very
efficient way of working)
23Co-authorswho should you include?
- You
- Supervisor
- Collaborators
- Did you pay them to do the work??
- All by agreement (you can afford to be generous)
- Anyone who has had significant academic and
practical input into the work
24Effective Scientific Writing
- Title
- Dont get too long and wordy
- Use scientific style
- Must tell the reader what sort of content to
expect - e.g. The effects of soil perturbations on plant
and bacterial diversity - NOT A study to show how bacteria and plants are
affected by changes in.
25Effective Scientific Writing
- Abstract
- Should give the aims and/or rationale for the
study - Minimal methods e.g. PCR was used to no
detail! - Focus mainly on results
- e.g. Twelve bacterial 16S rDNA sequences were
analysed. this implies that the work has a
PCR element and so you dont need to spend time
on methods. - What are the major conclusions?
- The main, most important and interesting pieces
of data may be presented, but not everything. - This is the shop window of your piece of work.
It should tell the reader what s/he will find.
26Effective Scientific Writing
- Introduction
- Explain what the work was about not methods but
context - Refer to other studies for background
- Use references
- Give a reference when you write words you did not
compose yourself - Present your aims (based on hypothesis) usually
the last paragraph. - Do not describe results
27Effective Scientific Writing
- Materials Methods
- Describe what you did
- The description should enable someone else to
repeat what you did - Do not list materials or equipment used
- Do not use minute details what is important?
28Effective Scientific Writing
- Results I
- Presents the data you obtained and analysed.
- Do not reiterate the methods
- Do not discuss these data
- Give results in words supported by drawings,
diagrams, graphs and/or tables - e.g. "The growth rate of the organism was
exponential (Fig.1)" not "Fig. 1 shows that the
growth rate of the organism was exponential."
29Effective Scientific Writing
- Results II
- Tables and Figures must have a legend and be
numbered (Table 1, Figure 1, etc). Do not use
Graph 1 or Chart 1 - Refer to the Figures sequentially i.e. Figure 1
must be referred to before Figure 2. - Drawings and photographs must have a scale e.g. 1
cm or 10 ?m - Do not present the same data more than once
- Describe statistical analysis
30Effective Scientific Writing
- Discussion
- Describe what your results show
- Are your results confirming or contradicting
others? - Explain your results in the wider context
- Refer to relevant published work
- Do not repeat results
- Show how your aims have been met have you
effectively tested your hypothesis? - Point to weaknesses, future work (brief)
31Effective Scientific Writing
- References I
- List all the sources you used and cited in your
text - Use Reference list not Bibliography
- List in sequence required by the journal
- Avoid reference to websites.
- Go back to original articles do not rely solely
on on-line searches
32Effective Scientific Writing
- General Advice
- Avoid 1 sentence paragraphs
- Use binomial system for names
- In vitro, in vivo et al. are italicised
- Check spelling and grammar
- Some abbreviations need a stop, e.g., i.e. others
do not Dr, Mr - gramme, g or centimetre, cm have no stop
- Data is a plural noun
33Effective Scientific Writing
- Correct use of units
- The correct term for weight is mass
- Units such as cm/h, mg/mL, mL/kg/min and ?l/g are
written as cm h-1, mg mL-1, mL kg-1min-1 and ?L
g-1 respectively - Centrifugation units given in g
- Greek symbols ? ? ? ?
- Use proper symbols for /- i.e. ?, and for
degrees i.e.?C (Celsius) - Space between number and unit (2 cm NOT 2cm)
34Your paper what to do with the first draft..
- Edit the work at every step of the way then edit
it as a whole entity. - Step back think like a referee for a while!!
- Send it to co-authors and to friends/colleagues
who you trust to give good feedback (red penners) - Act on comments get agreement
- Check again against Instructions to Authors
submit.
35Keeping a reference database
- What is a reference database?
- Filing system for papers/publications
- Integrated with on-line databases (e.g. BIDS)
- Allows retrieval of references in a collection
- Allows formatting of references for publication
- Integration with word processing software
- Procite offered free by University (learn how
to use it)
36Keeping a reference database
- Why bother?
- Now probably an essential aid to accessing and
keeping up with contemporary literature - Primary literature is an essential resource for
scientists a good database manager will also
allow searches etc. of commercial databases (e.g.
WOS) - Can keep details and personal notes of references
in one place - Huge time and effort saver when writing reports,
thesis and manuscripts
37Keeping a reference database
- What are the advantages?
- Work as you go along
- Quality control - once checked, no more errors
- Only type your references once at most
- Flexibility - same references for different
journals, reports etc. - Integration with on-line databases, current
contents and other information sources - Can be made a group effort
38Keeping a reference database
- What are the disadvantages?
- Work as you go along - requires self discipline
- Front-loaded - results/advantages may not be seen
for some time - Group databases rely on group responsibility
- NONE REALLY
39Responding to Referees Comments
- Dont get mad or discouraged
- Sometimes the referees are trying to be helpful
- Respond to every comment, positive and negative
- Make changes only if you agree with them
- Address all comments - changes or otherwise - in
a covering letter - The reviewer is not always right!!
- Get help with the letter argue your points
carefully. Not everyone reads the same things!! - Respond quickly often a deadline which if
missed means full resubmission. - If aiming high, approach the journal first e.g.
Nature can save some heartache!