Conducting%20

1
Chapter 12

• Additional Research Approaches

2
Historical Approach

• Goal Record and understand events of the past
• Problems

3
Sources of Historical Data

• Primary sources
• original documents, physical artifacts, people
  who were eyewitnesses
• Secondary sources
• textbooks, newspapers, abstracts, almanacs,
  encyclopedias, bibliographies (some of these may
  sometimes be primary sources)

4
Evaluating Historical Data

• criticism
• Test physical and chemical properties of items to
  confirm age, authorship
• Test signature, script, handwriting, spelling,
  and type to confirm authenticity
• Check consistency in language use, time-sensitive
  knowledge and technology
• criticism
• Assess meaning and content of item
• Assess value of data

5
Oral History - Techniques

• Taped history should also be writted and edited
  by primary source
• Content should use researchers notes as must as
  possible
• Questioning must be conducted carefully (no
  leading questions)
• Interview sessions should be short
• Topics should be given to interviewee in advance
• Researcher should be well-read in topic

6
Biographical Research

• Humanizes past
• Use lots of primary sources
• Difficulties
• May or may not be testing a hypothesis

7
Epidemiological Approach

• Descriptive identify patterns, trends, etc.
• May attempt to determine causation

8
Research designs

• Cohort studies ( studies)
• Case-control studies ( studies)

9
Ten Principles of Causal Inference

• Strength of Association
• Dose-Response Relationship
• Independence
• Temporal Sequence
• Persistence
• Alterability
• Agreement
• Consistency
• Biologic Plausibility
• Experimental Confirmation

10
Strength of Association

• Relative Risk likelihood that a group with a
  risk factor will have a health characteristic in
  comparison to a group without risk factor
• Odds-ratio Estimate of relative risk
• Attributable Risk Percentage of cases in the
  total group that occur in the group with a risk
  factor.

11
Single Participant Approach

• May include more than one subject
• Baseline measure obtained for each participant,
  compared to post-treatment score
• Do not analyze data as group, based on idea that
  some treatments may work only in some individuals

12
Creative Activities

• Examples dance, skillful performers, development
  of novel computer programs for various purposes,
  gymnastics, development of new piece of equipment
  or new procedure