Title: In agreement with this pluralism a phenomena evolves naming theoretical jungle'
1(No Transcript)
2- In agreement with this pluralism a phenomena
evolves naming theoretical jungle. - Is there, can there be, a track way through this
jungle? Yes. But in the condition that we
recognize that management is a practical
knowledge ranging from motion study to cultural
anthropology. Each of these are in the different
stage of development.
3The pattern of Management
- Regarding this fact, can we arrange this
knowledge in a kind of pattern. We Suggest yes.
in doing so we refer to management definition. It
consists in getting things done for, with, and
through people. - Therefore knowledge about managing break down
in two categories.
4categories
- Knowledge about the things to be done, the work
- Knowledge about the people who do the work. but
as we recognize the behavior of people
individually regarded is affected by membership
of social groups of all kinds such as family. - Thus the knowledge of Management can be divided
into four segments
5Knowledge about the work
- 1.1 Knowledge about the tasks we ask people to
perform - 2.1 Knowledge about the relationships between the
tasks we ask member of a group to perform
62. Knowledge about the people
- 1.2 Knowledge about the behavior of individual
person - 2.2 Knowledge about the behavior of individual
person as influenced by their membership in a
social groups of all kinds. - Each of these four categories bearing on total
activity of managing depends on a different range
of underling science.
7Knowledge about the tasks we ask people to
perform
- This knowledge about the tasks of individuals
was developed from the engineering
sciences-mathematics, physics, mechanics,
mineralogy, etc. That is, F. W. Taylor started
analyzing and measuring exactly what was involved
in the task of an operator on a lathe. From these
first studies, the applied science we call
industrial or management engineering has
developed.
8Knowledge about the relationships between the
tasks
- This Knowledge developed out of the economic
sciences-geography, statistics, law, and the
subject which used to be described as commerce.
From these studies have developed - a whole range of applied techniques-organizatio
n and methods, cost accounting, management
accounting, budgetary control, and a whole range
of new techniques centering around the use of
computers.
9Knowledge about the behavior of individual person
- This Knowledge about the behavior of
individuals was developed out of the
psychological sciences. But, these are
comparatively modern studies. It was only in the
last quartile of the 20th century that Freud and
Adler in Austria and Jung in Switzerland began to
develop psychology out of physiology, initially
out of psychopathology, the study of the abnormal
mind. The first book known to the writer on the
application of modern psychology to industrial
problems was the late Hugo Munsterberg's
Psychology and Industrial Efficiency. - It was closely followed by Lillian B.
Gilbreth's The Psychology of Management. - Pending the development of an adequate
science of individual psychology, managers filled
in with a series of empirical techniques
described as industrial relations and personnel
management
10Knowledge about the behavior of individual person
as influenced by their membership in a social
groups of all kinds.
- It was not till some 25 years later, following
on the Hawthorne - Experiments, that attention really began to
concentrate on human - behavior in groups. These studies depended on
a series of so-called "behavioral
sciences"-anthropology, social psychology,
sociology, and political theory, leading up to
political science. Accompanying the development
of these sciences was - a whole body of empirical techniques
described broadly as - employee relations, customer relations, trade
union relations, - and public relations.
- Therefore knowledge about managing break down
in four categories. Management, therefore,
considered as a body of knowledge, rests on four
groups of underlying sciences-the engineering
sciences, the economic sciences, the sciences
dealing with individual physiology and - psychology, and the so-called "behavioural"
or social sciences
11- These four groups of sciences are at very
different stages of development and
sophistication. this development can be explained
by the essence of scientific method, then we
argue that management with its constructing
sciences is a incomplete science.
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13The essence of scientific method
- According to Henry Chatelier, the French
physicist a scientific method involves SIX steps - Definition
- Analysis
- Measurement
- Hypothesis
- Experiment
- proof
14- It is characteristics of much of the criticism
of earlier writer on management that the first
two steps in this rescript are conspicuously and,
apparently deliberately, omitted.
15Ambivalence in defining organization
- In American texts the term "organization" used in
two incompatible meanings. - First of all, it is used to mean the structure of
positions or posts into which total activities
necessary to any human system of collaboration
are subdivided. - At the counterpoint, it is used to mean a system
of human collaboration regarded as a whole.
16- Scientific management
- The nature of relationship between management and
labor
17Scientific management
- An essential element of Taylors philosophy of
management, as the name of movement implies, was
a scientific approach to managerial decision
making. - The name was intended to contrast his approach
with the unscientific one that characterized
traditional management practices. - By scientific Taylor meant Based on proven facts
(research and experiment ) rather than on
tradition, rule of thumb, guesswork, precedent,
personal opinion or hearsay. - The aim of Taylor was to forge a mental
revolution in management.
18relationship between management and labor
- At the turn of the century, management and labor
strife was widespread, and violence was uncommon.
And a large number of radical labors were
advocating violent overthrow of the capitalist
system. - Taylor argued that this view is false, that, in
root, the interest of both parties is the same.
both of them would benefit from higher
production, lower costs, provided that management
approached its job scientifically. - He believed that there would be no conflict over
how to divide the pie as long as the pie were
large enough.
19- However, the relations of management and labors
are now amicable than they were at the turn of
century, but the all conflict has not been
eliminated. - One reason for this is that no matter how big
the pie is, there still can be disagreements over
how to divide it up. - Taylor didnt anticipate this fact that as the
pie got bigger, aspiration would rise accordingly.
20Taylors techniques
- Time and motion study
- Standardized tools and procedures
- The tasks
- Money bonus
- Individualized work
- Management responsibility for training
- Scientific selection
- Shorter working hours and rest pauses
21Time and motion study
- Before Taylor, there is no objective method for
determining how fast a job should be done. - Most managers simply used past experience as a
guide. - Taylors solution was to break down the work task
into its constituent elements or motions to
eliminate wasted motions so the work would be
done in the one best way - Time study now is used routinely in
industrialized countries.
22Problems of Time and motion study
- Subjective elements
- Resistance to time study because of lack of trust
in management
23Standardized tools and procedures
- Before scientific management every worker had
its own tool box. This result in inefficiencies,
because the proper way werent used or even
owned. - Taylor strongly emphasized on standardization in
designing and using the tools. - Standardization was based on scientific methods
to reach optimized results. - This principle like the time study is now well
accepted. - This principle has been extended beyond the
sphere of tool use to include other types of
organizational procedures. - Also this technique has evolved in human
engineering.
24The tasks
- Taylor advocated that each worker be assigned a
specific amount of work, of a certain quality,
each day based on the results of time study. this
assigned quota he called task. - The term Task was equivalent to the term goal.
25Money bonus
- Taylor claimed that money was the what the worker
wanted most and argue that the worker should be
paid from 30 percent to 100 percent higher wages
in return for learning to do his job in
accordance with scientific management. - Although, the money has been attacked by Hawthorn
studies and social scientists, Taylor claimed
that the money is the most important thing worker
would want.
26Individualized work
- Taylor was a staunch advocate of individuals as
opposed to group work, as well as individualized
rewards, because he believed that group work and
reward undermined individual productivity, due to
such phenomenon as systematic soldiering. - This Taylors view is opposition to today
advocates of group work. - Nevertheless, his warning about the dangers of
group work, have proven to have some validity.
27Management responsibility for training
- In line with his emphasis on scientific
management approach, Taylor argued employees
shouldnt learn their skills haphazardly from
more experienced workers who may not be using the
one best way but from management experts who
are familiar with the job. - Now, there are no doubt that training is the one
of the most important responsibilities of
managers. - Furthermore, the objective evaluation of training
program is becoming increasingly common.
28Scientific selection
- Taylor advocated selecting first class (high
aptitude) men for a given job, because their
productivity would be several times greater than
that of average man.
29Shorter working hours and rest pauses
- Taylors experiments determined that fatigue
would be reduced and more work would be
accomplished if employees were given shorter
working hours during the day in proportion to the
difficulty of work
30Criticism of Taylor
- View of work motivation
- Social factors
- Authoritarianism
- Specialization of labor
- Men as machine
- Exploitation of workers
- Antiunionism
31View of work motivation
- Taylor is frequently criticized for his
oversimplified view of human motivation. - He did claim that what workers want most was
money. - Taylor believed that men wouldnt work or follow
directions - unless they attained some payment, personal
benefit from it. - This assumption is fully in accord with tenets of
Expectancy Theory.
32Social factors
- The Hawthorn studies were supposed to represent a
great enlightenment. They allegedly discovered
the influence of human relations or social
factors on worker motivation. - It has been claimed that this conclusion refuted
Taylors alleged assumption that workers respond
to incentives as isolated individuals.
33Authoritarianism
- Authoritarianism means belief in obedience to
authority simply because it is authority,
obedience for the sake of authority. - Such a doctorine is in total contradiction to
everything Taylor stood for. - First and foremost, he stood for obedience to
fact- to reason, to proofs, to experiment. It was
not the rule of authority, he advocates but the
rule of knowledge. there is only one master, one
boss namely, knowledge. - Taylor didnt advocate participation by his
uneducated, manual workers because they didnt
have requisite knowledge to do their jobs in the
one best way. So we can not knew him as a
authoritarianist
34Specialization of labor
- There is a little doubt that Taylor emphasized
maximum specialization not only for workers, but
also for foremen and managers as well. - His argument was traditional one, that
specialization decreases learning time and
increases competence and skills. - To evaluate the criticism that Taylor emphasized
specialization, one must ask - how much emphasis is overemphasis?
- Advocates of job enrichment argue that
overspecialization leads to boredom and low
morale and lack of motivation, because of
underutilized mental capacity? - However Taylor argued for matching of men and
their jobs in accordance with their capacities.
Those who do works that require low mental
capacity should be people who have low mental
capacity and vise versa.
35Men as machine
- This usually refers to scientific managements
requirements of complete uniformity for a given
job with respect to times and motions used by the
workmen. - As noted earlier, he wasnt against workers
suggestions provided they first mastered the best
way. - The alternative to treating men as machine was
the prescientific method of management, which
allowed men to choose tools and methods based on
their opinions and feelings rather than on
knowledge. - It is forgotten that standardization included
redesign of machines and equipments in order to
enable men to become more skilled at the tasks
they performed. - Taylor rather than treating men as machines,
helped to develop science of matching men with
machine.
36Exploitation of workers
- During Taylors lifetime was claimed that his
system was explosive, because although under
scientific management worker might improve his
productivity by around 100 percent, his pay was
increased by a lesser amount. - Taylor refuted this argument
- He pointed out, that increase in productivity
wasnt caused by worker only, but also by
management. It was by management who discovered
better techniques and redesigned new jobs at some
cost to themselves. Thus they deserved some
benefits as well.
37Antiunionism
- The criticism that Taylor was antiunion is true
in only one sense. Taylor foresaw no need for
unions once scientific management was
established, especially because he saw the
interests of managers and workers the same. - Under this conditions, the belief that unions are
unnecessary didnt indicate lack of concern for
employee welfare. - The leaders of scientific management movement,
including Taylor, showed great concern about the
effects of company policies on employee well
being.
38Fayol
- He was a top manager and believed that there can
be some universalistic principles which underlie
management. - He like Taylor had a view on which organizational
performance depends upon implementing management
principals arising from experiences. - but unlike Taylor who approached management from
a bottom-up viewpoint, he suggested principles
from a top-down one.
39Principles
- Division of work
- Authority And Responsibility
- Remuneration of Personnel
- Stability of Tenure of Personnel
- Unity of command
- Unity of Direction
- Unity of Management
- Discipline
- Order
- Span of control
- Hierarchy
- Justice
- Centralization
40Common points of administration theorists
- There was disagreements between Administration
Theorists like Fayol and Gulik, however, they
agreed with each other in some points. - They agreed upon 2 managerial works, named
division of labor and departmentalization or
grouping -
41 Division labor
- Both Fayol and Gulic believed that if the work
divided into its essential activity and each
person being responsible of these activities,
then performance is increased.
42departmentalization
- Other shared principle is departmentalization
which refers to integrating homogenous activities
(tasks) or works into same departments. Through
this principle, it is possible to manage and
coordinate works and workers efficiently.
43Critics of Administrative Theory
- The most horrible critics against Administrative
theory, especially its claim concerning the
existence of universal principles underlying
management. - These attacks mostly was from Simon who believed
that in best condition, this idea is unnecessary,
and in the worse one, is misleading.
44Simons idea
- Simon in his influential article The Proverbs
of Administration asserts that administrative
principles are like proverbs. A fact about
proverbs that greatly enhances their quotability
is that they always occur in a mutually
contradictory pairs. - look before you leap, but, he who hesitates is
lost. - He believed that if proverbs is a matter of
rationalizing behavior it is ideal. But if one
seek to use proverbs as the basis of scientific
theory, the situation is less happy. thus this is
both convenience and serious defect, depending on
the use of it.
45- He claims that most of propositions that make up
administrative theory share, this defect of
proverbs. - In line with his asserts, he focuses on four
shared principles and tries to uncover their
contradictions. - According to him although these pairs lead to
apposite organizational recommendations, but
there is nothing in the theory to indicate which
one is correct to apply.
46Some accepted principles
- Administrative efficiency is increased by
specialization of tasks among groups - Administrative efficiency is increased by
arranging members of group in the determinate
hierarchy of authority. - Administrative efficiency is increased by
limiting the span of control - Administrative efficiency is increased by
grouping the workers
47- He proves that each pair of these principles is
mutually exclusive
48Weber
- Weber is one of most famous sociologists around
the world. His idea, in general relate to
establish some mechanisms in social sciences in
order to minimize researchers bias and to
increase research objectivity. - In line of his concerns he introduced a concept,
named Ideal Type. This concept dont refer to a
favorite condition, nor to an average, but it
concerns to a pure, abstract construct that must
be compared against empirical data. - So Ideal Type of bureaucracy is not an ideal
and favorite arrangement, but is a typical
organization which is the consequence of
rationalization of society.
49Characteristics of bureaucracy
- It consists of a formation of offices with each
office having a specified span of control and
specified duties and responsibilities. - The offices are organized into a hierarchy with
which lower office under the control and
supervision of higher one. - Operations are governed by a system of rules and
consist of the application of these rules to
particular cases. - Each office is occupied by an official who
conducts himself in a formalistic impersonality. - The occupancy of each office is based on
technical competency
50Critics to Weber
- Psychological pathologists
- Methodological critics
- Other critics
51Psychological pathologists
52Gouldners critic
- Gouldner asserts that bureaucracy has
orientations, especially toward obedience from
rules, that make individuals conservative. In
fact, Bureaucracy deteriorates innovation.
53R. gris
- R. Grice, like Gouldner, asserts that
accomplishing goals in modern organizations need
them to use some tools and mechanisms which are
apposite to mental growth of an individual. - He believed that each person moves from
immaturity to maturity. The latest phases of this
growth require mental independence, but
organizational requirements overwhelm this
feeling. Thus organizational men are immature
creatures.
54Methodological critics
- Scott and others showed that Weber has mistaken
in setting the bureaucracy concept, in that,
this concept has two contradictory bases. In the
one hand, Weber asserts that the most important
factor that causes employing a person into a job
is his technical competency( personal base of
power). On the other hand, he claims that the
only true base of power is position.
55Others critic
- Merton asserts that most of social phenomenon
have dual function latent and manifest one.
Manifest functions are those which we prefer to
occur or ones which that arrangement
intentionally has been set to accomplish them. - Latent functions are those which we dont prefer
to occur. They are dysfunction. - Merton believed that bureaucracy is not an
exception. It has some dysfunctions. It was
established to accomplish goals fast and
carefully. But as time goes on, it shows some
dysfunctions. For example, rules and regulations
are set in accordance with these goals, but
bureaucrats only want to obey rules. In these
conditions rules replace with goals. It is that
Merton, called it as goal displacement. These
conditions are in contrast with bureaucracy goals.
56Organizational structure
57- Within recent years, organizational analysts
have realized that there is no one best way to
organize and that not all organizational
structures are equally effective. Rather,
organizations come to be viewed as open systems
that must be designed so as to handle best their
respective contingencies. As a consequences,
considerable researches have been directed toward
isolating factors upon which an organizations
structure may be contingent.
58- although, majority of variables have been
identified, a vast majority of studies have
focused on the respective role of size,
technology, and environment.
59Dimensions of structure
- Formalization
- Complexity
- Centralization
- Administrative intensity
60Formalization
- Formalization is described as degree to which
rules and procedures within a system are
specified.
61Complexity
- complexity refers to degree or extent of
differentiation within a given system, where
differentiation may be horizontal, spatial,
vertical or personal in nature. Thus complexity
includes the number of hierarchical levels (
vertical ), the number of functions ( horizontal
), the number of operating sites ( spatial), and
the degree of personal expertise ( personal)
62Centralization
- centralization is defined as the locus of
formal control or power within a system. It
encompasses such factors as the locus of decision
making authority, the hierarchy of authority,
autonomy and participative decision making.
63Administrative intensity
- administrative intensity, also referred to as
supportive or administrative component, is a
measure of personnel within a system. It has been
expressed as the ratio of administrative
personnel to total or production labor, or simple
counts of administrative personnel
64Technology and structure( Woodwards study)
- Contemporary interest in technology as a
determinant of structure began with Woodward's
studies. When no relationship was found between
the use of classical management principles and
firm success, she allocated the 100 varied
English organizations to categories along a scale
of technical complexity. Woodward defined three
levels of increasing technological complexity
unit and small batch production, large batch and
mass production, and process production. Using
this scale, she found a linear relationship
between technical complexity and various measures
of administrative intensity and vertical
differentiation, but a curvilinear relationship
to others, such as span of control of first line
supervisors. In general, firms at the extremes of
technological complexity (unit and continuous
process) had organic management system
structures, whereas those at the center were more
mechanistic. Firms closer to the median scores
for structure in their technological grouping
were economically more successful than firms
above or below the median. Thus, she concluded
that success depended on the appropriateness of
an organization's structure for a particular
operations technology -the "technological
imperative". Subsequent research by Zwerman and
Blau et al. supported Woodward's findings.
65Technology and structure( Perrows study)
- Perrow offers a conceptual framework for the
comparative analysis of organizations that
considers technology to be the major structural
determinant. Defining technology as the actions
an individual takes upon an object so as to bring
about a change in that object, Perrow proposes
two dimensions in technology - the number of exceptions encountered and the
- degree to which search procedures are
analyzable. - Together, these dimensions determine four
technology types - craft, routine, engineering, and nonroutine.
Considering routine and nonroutine technologies
to be the extremes, Perrow maintains that control
and coordination methods will vary with
technology type. Routine technologies allow for
greater bureaucratization of an organization's
structure, whereas nonroutine technologies
require greater structural flexibility.
66Perrows typology of technology
67summary
- This brief review of the technology literature
points up several issues. First, there is no
unanimity that technology affects organizational
structure. Although some studies found strong
relationships, others did not. This inconsistency
may stem partly from the types of technology
considered. Many studies that found weak
relationships between technology and structure
focused exclusively on operations technology,
even though these same writers argued that
organizations may employ more than one type of
technology. Although the impact of operations
technology may be slight in some organizations,
this is not to say that other technologies or
combinations of technologies could not explain
the remaining variance in an organization's
structure as well as or better than size. Second,
there is little consistency in how technology is
measured and few have offered validation of their
measure(s). This problem may stem from the lack
of consensus as to what technology is. Third, the
impact of technology is likely to be selective,
affecting some structural dimensions more than
others. Fourth, as Blau et al. indicate, the
assumption that there is a linear relationship
between technology and structure may be invalid.
Finally, most researchers suggest that technology
per se determines structure -although Thompson
and Reeves and Woodward suggest that it is not
the technology per se, but the nature of the
interdependency created by a technology that is
important in determining an organization's
structure.
68Size and structure
- In addition to research focusing on the
relative importance of size versus technology as
determinants of an organization's structure,
considerable - work has been concerned exclusively with the
influence of size alone, particularly as it
relates to structural components of complexity
and administrative intensity. Most research on
size has centered on this latter relationship.
The basic assumption that underlies research - on administrative intensity is that
increases in size (number of people) lead to
increases in control and coordination
requirements. Based implicitly - on administrative management theory, the
argument is advanced that increases in the number
of personnel at lower levels will result in
disproportionate increases in the number of
administrative personnel. This is due to the
need to maintain optimal spans of control and the
belief that only administrative personnel perform
control and coordination functions. Therefore, in
what is referred to as Parkinson's Law, the
proportion of the containing organization given
over to the administrative component will
increase disproportionately with increases in
organization size.
69Terrien and Mills
- In a study of California school districts,
Terrien and Mills found that the administrative
component increased with size regardless of
school type (elementary, high, and unified).
70Blau schoenherr study
- Blau and Schoenherr, based on their analysis
of employment security agencies, argued that size
influences both complexity and administrative
intensity, but that the effect of size on
administrative intensity is greater. Since
administrative intensity decreased with size,
even though it increased with structural
differentiation, they concluded that the direct
effect of size to reduce administrative intensity
must be greater than the indirect effects of
size, through structural differentiation, to
increase it
71Summary
- This review points out several issues.
First, although larger organizations generally
have smaller administrative intensities than
smaller organizations, recent findings raise
serious questions as to why. Size may not be the
only factor that influences administrative
intensity. Moreover, since administrative
intensity is not a homogeneous construct, the
relationship between its various dimensions and
the contingency variables identified here are not
clear. Nor is the relationship of administrative
intensity to the structural dimensions of
formalization, centralization and complexity.
Second, there is no consensus as to how size
should be measured. Although most researchers
have used some count of system members, others
have not - Finally, the relationship between size and
structure is not clear. Although some have found
strong relationship and argue for its causal
nature, others have found no such relationship or
have argued for its being a consequence rather
than a cause .
72Environment and structure
- One of the most widely discussed and least
understood concepts in the field of
organizational analysis today is the relationship
between the organization and its environment. To
date, much of the theoretical and empirical work
on this issue has focused on the uncertainty
element. Most researchers and theorists emphasize
that organizations must adapt to their
environment if they are to maintain and/or
increase their effectiveness. The problem has
been how "best" to describe the environment
73Burns stalker study
- Burns and Stalker suggested that the stability of
an organization's environment is important in
determining an organization's structure. They
distinguished between two types of
organizations-organic and mechanistic. The latter
was found better suited to stable environments
because of its greater centralization and
formalization. The organic structure, with lower
centralization and formalization, was found
better suited to more dynamic environments. Child
also found environmental stability to be related
to organizational structure and effectiveness
74Burns stalker model
static
dynamic
organic
mechanistic
75Lawrence Lorsch study
- Lawrence and Lorsch considered environmental
uncertainty to be a key variable.
Operationalizing uncertainty by measuring the
clarity of information, the degree to which
cause-effect relationships are known, and the
time span of definitive feedback, they
characterized an organization's environment as
diverse if a wide range of uncertainty was
perceived among its different parts, and
homogeneous if the range was narrow. Using a
sample of ten firms from three industries, they
found that in successful organizations, each
organization subunit met the demands of its
subenvironment. In diverse environments, subunits
were more differentiated than those in
homogeneous environments. In this case,
differentiation refers not only to differences in
formal structure, but also to differences in the
cognitive and emotional orientation of subunit
members.
76summary
- This brief review of the environmental literature
points up several issues. First, in few studies
has the term environment been thoroughly
discussed or made explicit. Second, most
researchers, in treating the environment as the
"cause" of organization uncertainty, preclude the
possibility of viewing particular environmental
characteristics as dependent variables and thus
subject to manipulation by the organization.
Third, the impact of environmental uncertainty on
internal operations of the organization is likely
to be confined to managers at the institutional
level or in boundary spanning positions. Fourth,
there remains the problem of how environments
become known to managers.
77Organizational culture
78Organizational culture
- Organizational culture has been defined as
patterns of shared values and beliefs over time
which produce behavioral norms that are adopted
in solving problems (Owens 1987, Schein 1990).
Schein (1985) has also noted that culture is a
body of solutions to problems which have worked
consistently and are therefore taught to new
members as the correct way to perceive, think
about, and feel in relation to those problems. In
fact, these shared philosophies, assumptions,
values, expectations, attitudes, and norms bind
an organization together (Kilman et al. 1985).
Thus, the set of integrated concepts becomes the
manner or strategies through which an
organization achieves its specific goals. It can
therefore be postulated that an organization's
collective culture influences both the attitudes
and subsequent behaviors of its employees, as
well as the level of performance the organization
achieves.
79- Schein (1990) has noted that culture is thought
to permeate the organization on at least three
fundamental levels. At the surface, one may
observe visible artifacts of the organization,
that is, its structure, technology, rules of
conduct, dress codes, records, physical layout,
stories, and rituals. Beneath this dimension is a
second level, organizational values, and,
finally, underlying assumptions about the nature
of organizational "reality" that are deeper
manifestations of values. Of course,
investigating processes of culture at the latter
level is more difficult, as they cannot be
directly observed and measured.
80Systems of culture
- Allaire and Firsirotu (1984) have also suggested
that three interrelated sets of systems help
identify organizational culture - The first is a sociocultural system
- organizational belief system
- collective individuals
81 sociocultural system
- is composed of the perceived functioning of
formal organizational structures, strategies,
policies, and management practices relative to
the work structure in the organization. Because
these activities have been consistently
successful, they become regular practice. This
aspect of organizational culture reflects the
orientation of classical management theory toward
the goals of the organization and how tasks must
be best organized to meet those goals (Mackenzie
1986, Thompson 1967). Leaders make important
decisions about the work structure of
organizations that fundamentally shape how
workers go about doing their jobs. In managing
the core technology of the organization, leaders
help crystyalize production goals, achieve more
certainty in how to achieve goals, and develop
strategies to organize the work force to
translate goals into outcomes (Bossert et al.
1982, Mackenzie 1986, March and Simon 1959).
82organizational belief system
- embodies the myths, values, and idealogies of the
organization. Researchers have suggested that
developing this aspect of culture is a powerful
function of organizational management. Leaders
attempt to clarify values and to define the
organization's purposes. This domain emphasizes
communication of goals and production results,
both internally and externally (Heck, Larsen, and
Marcoulides 1990 Reynolds 1986). For example,
Bolman and Deal (1984) have noted the
"mythological" roles often played by leaders as
ceremonial heads of organizations, in an effort
to clarify role esponsibilities, teach
organizational values, and promote the
organization's mission. These symbolic behaviors
may represent attempts to transmit organizational
values at deeper levels of inculturation.
83- one co-effect of the socialization of
organizational values is organizational climate,
or the perceptions held by participants as to the
nature of the organization. Employees have a
variety of perceptions about how well the work
environment of the organization is functioning
including the quality of social interactions,
recognition of their work-related efforts, the
types of communication channels open to them,
access to technology and resources, and demands
or stress placed upon them by the organization.
Besides managing the core technology of the
organization, leaders also may have some impact
on building a productive organizational climate
through the emphasis of particular sets of
organizational values, and the amount of effort
expended in this domain is predictive of
organizational outcomes (e.g., Heck et al. 1990,
Owens 1987). Part of the leader's role in
managing this subsystem may also include
"buffering" the organization from outside
influences, so that goals may be attained and
input from the environment is channeled
constructively.
84collective individuals
- The last domain of culture suggested by Allaire
and Firsirotu (1984) is the collective
individuals, with their unique experiences,
belief systems, goals, and personalities. While
such attitudes and values may be at least
partially shaped by the organization's belief
system, individuals may be thought of as
possessing a wide range - of perceptions about social, political, and
work-related issues. Though the goal is to
socialize employees to perpetuate the
organizational culture, the process does not
always have uniform effects on individuals.
Fuller et al's (1982) concept of organizational
efficacy further suggests that management
behavior may to some extent be - constrained by the often divergent goals,
attitudes, and decisions of individual workers.
The attitudes and values of employees
individually, as well as about organizational
climate, therefore, may be important variables
that affect organizational performance.
85Dimensions of culture
- power Distance
- Uncertainty Avoidance
- Individualism, Collectivism
- Masculinity and its opposite pole Femininity
86power Distance
- can be defined as the degree of inequality among
people which the population of a country
considers as normal from relatively equal (that
is, small power distance) to extremely unequal
(large power distance)
87Uncertainty Avoidance
- it can be defined as the degree to which people
in a country prefer structured over unstructured
situations. Structured situations are those in
which there are clear rules as to how one should
behave. These rules can be written down, but they
can also been unwritten and imposed by tradition.
In countries which score high on uncertainty
avoidance, people tend to show more nervous
energy, while in countries which score low,
people are more easygoing. - A (national) society with strong uncertainty
avoidance can be called rigid one with weak
uncertainty avoidance, flexible. One way of - describing countries where uncertainty
avoidance is strong, is to say that in these
countries a feeling prevails of "what is
different, is dangerous." In weak uncertainty
avoidance societies, the feeling would rather be
"what is different, is curious".
88Individualism, Collectivism
- Individualism, is the degree to which people in
a country prefer to act as individuals rather
than as members of groups. The opposite of
individualism can be called Collectivism, so
collectivism is low individualism. In
collectivist societies a child learns to respect
the group to which it belongs, usually the
family, and to differentiate between in-group
members and out-group members (that is, all other
people). When children grow up they remain
members of their group, and they expect the group
to protect them when they are in trouble. In
return, they have to remain loyal to their group
throughout life. In individualist societies, a
child learns very early to think of itself as "I"
instead of as part of "we". It expects one day to
have to stand on its own feet and not get
protection from its group anymore and therefore
it also does not feel a need for strong loyalty.
89Masculinity and Femininity
- is the degree to which values like
assertiveness, performance, success and
competition, which in nearly all societies are
associated with the role of men, prevail over
values like the quality of life, maintaining warm
personal relationships, service, care for the
weak, and solidarity, which in nearly all
societies are more associated with the role of
women. Women's roles differ from men's roles in
all countries but in some societies, the
differences are larger than in others. If the
differences are large, the dominant values are
"masculine," and the society can be called
"tough" to its people it becomes a performance
society. In a masculine society, even the women
have fairly tough values, but not as much as the
men. If in a country the differences between
women's roles and men's roles are relatively
small, the dominant values are more "feminine,"
and the society is more "tender" to its people
it becomes a welfare society. In a feminine
culture, even the men have fairly tender values.
One consequence of the fact that in masculine
countries the values of men and women are more
different than in feminine countries, is that
women's values differ less across countries than
men's values.
90Culture and organizational models
91(No Transcript)
92- From the four dimensions of national cultures
Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance affect
both the way in which people organize themselves
and the way in which they write about organizing.
The two dimensions cover the two crucial
questions which have to be answered in any effort
at organizing. Power Distance deals with who will
decide what Uncertainty Avoidance with
establishing predictability of outcomes, with the
need for structures and rules. Both questions are
culturally subjective other things being equal,
in countries with smaller Power Distances, the
leaders as well as those led will function best
with a wider spread of decision power than in
countries with larger P.D.s in countries with
stronger Uncertainty Avoidance, all will need
more structure and rules than in countries with
weaker U.A.
93Cultures and Organization Theories
- Not only the people within organizations, but
also those writing about organizing are children
of a culture they grew up in families, went to
schools, and worked for employers. Their
experiences represent the material on which their
thinking and writing has been based. As stated
earlier, organization theorists are as perfectly
human and as culturally biased as other mortals.
For each of the four quadrants of the P.D. X U.A.
matrix I have selected a classical author who
described organizations in terms of the model
belonging to his corner of the diagram the
pyramid, the machine, the market, or the family.
The four are approximate contemporaries all were
born in the mid-19th century.
94Pyramid Fayol
- In Fayol's conception the authority is both in
the person and in the rules (the statute). We
recognize the model of the organization as a
pyramid of people with both personal power and
formal rules as principles of coordination.
95Machine Weber
- Max Weber (1864-1920) was a German academic with
a university training in law and some years'
experience as a civil servant. He became a
professor of economics and a founder of German
sociology. In his own design for an organization
Weber describes the bureaucracy. The word
nowadays has a distinctly negative connotation,
but to Weber it represented the ideal type for
any large organization. In Weber's conception the
real authority is in the rules. The power of the
"officials" is strictly delimited by these rules.
We recognize the model of the organization as a
well-oiled machine which runs according to the
rules.
96Market Taylor
- Frederick Winslow Taylor ( 1856-1915) was an
American engineer who, contrary to Fayol, had
started his career in industry as a worker. He
attained his academic qualifications through
evening studies. From Chief Engineer in a steel
company he became one of the first management
consultants. Taylor was not really concerned with
the issue of authority at all his focus was on
efficiency. He proposed to split the task of the
first-line boss into eight specialisms, exercised
by different persons. Thus, every worker would
have eight - bosses, each with a different competence.
This part of Taylor's ideas was never completely
implemented, although we find elements of it in
the modern matrix organization in which an
employee has two (or even three) bosses, usually
one concerned with productivity - and one with technical expertise.
97- In the conception of Taylor and Follett the
authority is neither in the person nor in the
rules, but, as Follett puts it, in the situation.
We recognize the model of the organization as a
market, in which market conditions dictate what
will happen.
98Family Sun yat -sen
- Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) is a scholar from the
fourth quadrant of the Power Distance X
Uncertainty Avoidance matrix, from China. He
received a Western education in Hawaii and Hong
Kong and became a political revolutionary. As
China started industrialization much - later than the West there is no indigenous
theorist of industrial organization contemporary
with Fayol, Weber, and Taylor. However, Sun was
concerned with organization, albeit political. He
wanted to replace the ailing government of the
Manchu emperors by a modern Chinese state. He
eventually became for a short period nominally
the first President of the Chinese Republic.
99Sun's design for a Chinese form of government
represents an integration of Western and
traditional Chinese elements. From the West, he
introduced the "Trias Politica" the Executive,
Legislative, and Judicial branches. However,
unlike in the West, all three are placed under
the authority of the President. Two more Branches
are added, both derived from Chinese tradition
and bringing the total up to five the
Examination Branch (determining access to the
Civil Service) and the Control Branch, supposed
to audit the government. This remarkable mix of
two systems is formally the basis of the present
government structure of Taiwan, which has
inherited Sun's ideas through the Kuomintang
party. It stresses the authority of the President
(large Power Distance) the legislative and
judicial powers, which in the West are meant to
guarantee Government by Law, are made dependent
on the ruler and paralleled by the examination
and control powers which are based on Government
of Man (weak Uncertainty Avoidance).
100Organizational cultures and performance
101Organization structure
- This construct reflects the structure and
operational processes of an organization. As
conceived in this study, the construct includes
the relative size and complexity of the
administrative hierarchy, as well as whether the
organization is primarily manufacturing or
service-oriented. The construct is measured by
the complexity evident in the organization's
resource and communication flow patterns (XI
Complexity), the extent of breadth and depth
evident in the organization's hierarchy (X2
Sophistication), and the relative focus of the
organization with respect to its output
(X3Product/Service Line).
102Task organization
- This construct represents the typical strategies,
policies, and actions used by the organization in
achieving its production goals. The construct is
measured by the diversity and intensity of
methods used in selecting new employees (Yl
Selection), the quality and diversity of methods
used in judging employee performance (Y2
Evaluation), the propriety of criteria and
practices for renumeration (Y3 Compensation),
the extent that members are dedicated to
performing their organizational koles (Y4
Performance), the extent that managers take
personal interest in the welfare and performance
of their employees (YS Mentoring) and utilize
effective methods of selecting decision-making
alternatives (Y6 Decision Making),
103Organization climate
- This construct is described by the perceptions of
workers about a variety of conditions concerning
the work environment. It is measured by the
awareness among employees of the nature of the
organization's output as a blend of product and
service (Y8 Industry Role), the opinion among
employees of the ease with which communications
and resources are transmitted among the
organization's elements (Y9 Flow Mechanisms),
the perceptions among employees of the quality of
interactions and recognition within and across
organizational levels, as well as how the needs
of individuals are a concern to the organization
(Y10 Organizational Life), the awareness among
employees of the organization's use of available
technology and adoption of new ideas (Y11
Technology), and the perceptions of how much the
organization exerts pressures on individuals yet
is sensitive to the effect of stress (Y12
Stress).
104Organization values
- This construct or latent variable (the terms can
be used interchangeably) describes the
principles, idealogies, and values that an
organization holds as desirable in the practice
of serving its clients. It is measured by the
emphasis the organization places on risk-taking,
and its acceptance of occasional failure as a
result (X4 Risk), the emphasis the organization
places on protecting its employees in the
workplace (XS Safety), the emphasis the
organization places on productivity and
efficiency (X6 Efficiency), on integrity and
orderliness of performance (X7 Professionalism),
on rapid response to expanding market
opportunities, advertising, public image, and
community service (X8Marketing Image), and on
creating new outputs and improving existing ones
(X9 Research Development).
105Employee attitudes
- This construct reflects the beliefs of employees
about a variety of issues related to social,
political and organizational concerns, some of
which may be influenced by the organization and
some of which may be separately determined. In
the present study, it is measured by the extent
that employees resent recent organizational
policies in acceptance of minorities (Y13
Prejudice/Tolerance), regard nationalism as
important (Y14 Nationalism), regard common
courtesy and punctuality as important work
attributes (Y15Social Amenities), regard
dedication and commitment to the organization as
important (Y16 Commitment), and the extent to
which employees perceive that management involves
them in the decision-making process (Y 17
Involvement).
106Organization performance
- This construct reflects the extent of goal
achievement in the organization's workforce,
capital, marketing, and fiscal matters. It is
measured by the extent of sales fulfillment, as
measured by gross revenue relative to the value
of the product (or service) line (Y18 Volume),
the extent of penetration into the organization's
potential customer base (Y19 Share), the extent
of revenue surplus over expense resulting from
organizational operations (Y20 Profit), and the
extent of surplus in relation to risk, as
measured by gross profit relative to assets and
equity invested (Y21 Return).