WHY ARE YOU HERE

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WHY ARE YOU HERE?

• ?You Do Not Need This Training Course if you
  work in / with
• Housekeeping
• X-RAY OR FLUOROSCOPE
• ANIMALS OR PEOPLE WITH FDG or PET ISOTOPES
• IRRADIATOR ACCESS
• OTHER- ASK Trainer which course you need

• ?YOU SHOULD Attend This Training Course IF
• You work in a lab with RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

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Radiation Safety Trainingfor Laboratory
WorkersGA DNR 391-3-17-.07(3), Instructions
to Workers
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Radiation Safety Staff Members

• Stan Wilson, Radiation Safety Officer -727-0729
• Ike Hall, Assoc. RSO Emory University Hospital
• Browen Krans
• Steve Grimm, Assoc. RSO Crawford Long Hospital
• Fran Dickens, Assoc. RSO Lab coordinator, PET,
  Increased Controls
• Chris Vanderpool Inspections, Training, GM
  Calibrations
• Andy Cohen Inspections, Training, EHS Assist
• Aisha Ridley Inspections, Requisitions,
  Environmental
• Mishari Hanible Inspections, Waste,
  Environmental
• Visit our website www.esho.emory.edu for contact
  information

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Topics

• Basic Information about Radiation and
  Radioactivity
• Radiation Protection Principles
• How to have a successful Radiation Safety Audit
• Administrative Controls
• Instrumentation Spills

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Handouts

• Laboratory Worker Training Manual
• Personnel History Form
• Isotope Data Sheets
• Test
• Training Evaluation

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Atomic Structure
Protons 11p (1.007276 amu)
Neutrons 10n (1.008665 amu)
Electrons (0.0005486 amu)
Neon-20 2010Ne (19.992434 amu)
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Nucleus of the Atom

• The nucleus contains protons and neutrons
• All atoms of the same element contain the same
  number of protons
• Isotopes of an element can have differing numbers
  of neutrons
• Isotopes having a nearly equal number of protons
  and neutrons are most likely to be stable

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Nuclear Shorthand and Definitions

• Mass Number (A) Protons Neutrons
• Atomic Number (Z) Protons
• (the atomic number defines the element)
• A X
• Z
• Nuclide Atom characterized by atomic number and
  mass unit
• Isotope Nuclides of an element with the same
  atomic number (number of protons) but differing
  numbers of neutrons

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Radioactivity

• Definition
• process by which energetic atoms spontaneously
  transform into different atoms emit radiation
  in attempt to become stable
• 2-step process of decay / disintegration
• transformation inside the nucleus
• radiation emitted in one or several forms
• Alpha particles / Beta particles / Gamma rays

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Types of Ionizing Radiation Alpha, Beta,
Gamma
Alpha Particle
Large Mass (nuclei) Helium Atom with a 2 charge
Beta Particle
Small Mass - Electron (subatomic particle)
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Alpha Particles

• Composed of 2 protons, 2 neutrons, has no
  electrons
• Has a positive 2 (2) electrical charge
• Travels only inch or two in air
• Easily shielded with paper or dead layer of skin

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Alpha Decay

• In alpha decay, atom loses two neutrons and two
  protons and becomes another element
• 226Ra ? 222Rn 4a
  88 86 2

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Beta Particles

• Identical to an electron
• Has a negative one (-1) electrical charge
• 7200 times less massive than an alpha particle
• Travels several feet in air
• Easily shielded by clothing, a few sheets of
  cardboard, or Plexiglas

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Beta Decay

• Beta decay occurs when there are too many
  neutrons in the nucleus of the atom
• A neutron ejects a negative beta particle and
  becomes a proton
• 32P ? 32S 0e-1
• 15 16
• Positron Particles or Positive Beta Particle
• Identical to an electron
• Has a positive (1) electrical charge

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Positron Decay

• Occurs when there are too many protons in the
  nucleus
• A proton ejects a positive electron or positron
  and becomes a neutron
• 18F ? 18O 0e1 0e-1 0e1 ? ??
• 9 8
  0.511?

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Gamma Rays

• Electromagnetic radiation having no mass and no
  electrical charge
• Ejected from the nucleus of the atom
• Travel at the speed of light
• Shielded by dense materials such as lead or
  tungsten

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Gamma Decay

• Gamma given off when parent isotope needs to
  remove extra energy
• Gamma often accompany other processes of decay,
  such as alpha and beta
• 99m Tc ? 99 Tc ?
• 42 42

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Elements and Isotopes
Periodic Table of Elements
Chart of the Nuclides
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Penetrating Power of Radiations
Lead
Paper
Plastic
??????
Alpha
?????
Beta
Gamma and X-rays
???
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Radioactivity Units

• 1 Curie (Ci) 3.7x1010 dps
• or 2.22 x 1012 dpm
• 1 millicurie (mCi) 3.7 x 107 dps or 2.22 x 109
  dpm
• 1 microcurie (mCi) 3.7 x 104 dps or 2.22x106
  dpm
• 1 Becquerel (Bq) 1 disintegration per second
• Specific Activity
• amount of radioactivity in a given mass or
  volume, e.g. µCi/ml or mCi/gm

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Rate of Radioactive Decay

• Half-life time required for 1/2 of a sample to
  decay from its original activity
• Example
• If we have a sample of 1000 atoms, and its
  half-life is 10 days, after 10 days approximately
  500 atoms will remain

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Half-Life
The time required for the amount of radioactive
material to decrease by one-half
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Half-Life I-131

• 8 day half-life
• 0 8 16 24 32
• 1.0 ½ ¼ 1/8 1/16
• 20 mCi 10 mCi 5 mCi 2.5 mCi 1.25 mCi

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Half-Life and Radioactive Decay

• Half-life tells how long a substance may last
  half-lives range from microseconds to billions of
  years.
• Activity (Ci or Bq) tells how active the
  material is or the number of nuclear
  transformations occurring in a quantity of
  material per unit time

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Activity Calculations

• A Aoe-lt
• (? ln 2 T½ 0.693/ T½)
• Phosphorus-32 has a half-life of 14.3 days.
  How much is left of a one millicurie shipment
  after 30 days?
• A 1 mCi e-(0.693/14.3 d) x
  30 d
• A 0.234 mCi

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Decay Table

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Absorbed Dose

• Absorbed dose is measured as amount of energy
  deposited per unit mass of tissue
• Expressed in units of Gray (Gy) or rads
• 1 J/kg 1 Gy 100 rads

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Equivalent Dose

• Unit of equivalent dose rem (Roentgen
  equivalent man)
• Dose in rads of alpha / neutron radiation cause
  the same biological injury as one rad of x-rays
  or gamma rays
• SI Unit Sievert (Sv) (1 Sv 100 rem)

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Relative Biological Effectiveness

• Radiation WR or QF
• Gamma, X, Beta 1
• Neutron 5-20
• Alpha 20
• Dose equivalence absorbed dose x radiation
  weighting factor (WR) or quality factor (QF) for
  that particle

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Annual Occupational Limits

• 5000 mrem (5 rem or 50 mSv) whole body
• 15,000 mrem (15 rem or 150 mSv) to lens of eye
• 50,000 mrem (50 rem or 500 mSv) to extremities
• Set by federal government based on advice from
  scientific committees

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Other Dose Limits

• Members of public limited to 100 mrem
• Employees under 18 limited to 10 of permissible
  adult dose limit (500 mrem annually)
• Children not permitted in labs

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Declared Pregnant WorkersDNR 391-3-17-.03(h)

• A woman who has voluntarily informed her employer
  - in writing - of her pregnancy
• 500 mrem/term limit to fetus (50 mrem/month)
• Monthly fetal badge assigned

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Background Exposure

• Average exposure in United States 360 millirem
  per year
• Varies with location, soil, altitude, diet,
  lifestyle

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Sources of Radiation Exposure to the U.S.
Population
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Radon

• Naturally occurring heavier-than-air radioactive
  gas
• Can accumulate in lower levels of well-insulated
  homes
• No evidence of increased risk at household
  concentrations

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Cosmic Radiation

• Sea Level 26 mrem/yr
• Minneapolis, MN 815 feet 30 mrem/yr
• Atlanta, GA 1,050 feet 31 mrem/yr
• Salt Lake City, UT 4,400 ft. 46 mrem/yr
• Denver, CO 5,300 feet 50 mrem/yr

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Terrestrial Radiation - Soil

• United States (avg.) 26 mrem/yr
• Denver, CO 63 mrem/yr
• Nile Delta, Egypt 350 mrem/yr
• Paris, France 350 mrem/yr
• Coast of Kerala, India 400 mrem/yr
• McAipe, Brazil 2,558 mrem/yr
• Pocos De Caldas, Brazil 7,000 mrem/yr

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Radionuclides in Foods

• Mostly from 40K, 14C, 3H, 226Ra, and 232Th
• Tap Water 20 pCi/liter (U238, Ra226/228)
• Milk 1,400 pCi/liter (I131,Sr90,Cs137)
• Brazil Nuts 14 pCi/gram (Ra226)
• Bananas 3 pCi/gram (40k)
• Peanuts 0.12 pCi/gram (40K, 226Ra)

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Medical Sources of Radiation (Data for 1980 Pie
Chart)

• Chest X-Rays (140 mrem to skin of chest)
• Dental X-Rays (400 mrem to skin of face)
• I-131 to treat hyperthyroidism (300 rem to
  thyroid)
• Radiotherapy for polycythemia (excess RBCs)
  About 600 rem to bone marrow using P-32

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Consumer Products

• Cigarettes (2 packs/day8000 mrem/yr) 210Po
• Porcelain Dentures (1,500 mrem/yr) Uranium
• Radioactive Dishes
• Lantern Mantles (2 mrem/yr) 232Th
• No Salt KCl
• Smoke detectors (0.01 mrem/yr) 241Am
• Radioluminous watches / clocks (lt1 mrem/yr) 226Ra

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Radiation Biology

• Ionization in Living Tissue (Cell Damage) causes
  molecules in cells to be broken apart, which can
  kill the cell or cause them to reproduce
  abnormally
• Damage to a cell can come from direct or indirect
  action of the radiation

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Direct / Indirect Action

• DIRECT
• Change caused by interaction between
  radiation particles and body cell molecules,
  e.g., direct break-up of DNA molecules
• INDIRECT
• Chemical change of cell by forming reactive
  chemical fragments (free radicals) that diffuse
  the track and react further elsewhere
• H, (OH) gt H2 or H2O or H2O2

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Biological Effects of Radiation

• Direct and Indirect damage to cell
• - repair
• - cell dies or ceases function
• - cell survives (passes on defect)
• Cell damage readily repairable at low dose rates

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Types of Effects

• Somatic Effects Observed in exposed person
• Prompt somatic effects observable soon after a
  large acute dose
• Delayed somatic effects Observed as late as 30
  years after exposure
• Genetic Effects Abnormalities occur in future
  children of exposed individuals and future
  generations
• Teratogenic Effects Observed in children who
  were exposed during the fetal and embryonic
  stages of development

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Factors Determining BiologicalEffects of
Radiation Exposure

• Amount of exposure - rads
• Exposure Rate rads/minute
• Portion of Body exposed
• Radiation Characteristics a, ß, ?
• Mitosis (cell division) rate

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Short Term Effects

• High Doses in a short period of time (acute dose)
• A short period of time is considered to be less
  than 1 week.
• 25 rem Decrease in RBCs and increase in WBCs
• 50 - 100 rem Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
• 100 - 250 rem Lethargic, infection, fever,
  erythema, edema
• 250 - 450 rem GI Disorder, internal bleeding,
  death to 50 of population in 60 days with no
  medical treatment.
• gt600 rem CNS Disorder, temporary feeling of
  well-being, death to most people within two
  weeks, with no medical treatment.
• Reference The numbers used here are from The
  Cancer Risk from Low-Level Radiation. Bernard L.
  Cohen. Health Physics, Vol. 39, No.4, Oct., 1980.

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Long Term Somatic Effects

• Injury to cells that are continually
  proliferating embryonic and adult tissue
• Affect rate of cell division Cancer
• Latent period can be gt 30 years

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Late EffectsCells/Tissue at Risk

• Gonads
• Lung
• Breast
• Eye Lens

• Bone
• Thyroid
• Skin

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Radiation and Cancer

• Radium watch/clock painters
• 48 out 1700 women died of bone cancer (17,000 Rem
  to bones)
• U.S. miners and lung cancer
• 135 out of 4100 workers died of lung cancer (4700
  Rem to lungs)
• Hiroshima/Nagasaki (Atomic Bomb)
• 120 out of 24,000 died of cancer (130 Rem)

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Effects on Embryo / Fetus

• Radiation doses in excess of 10 rem may cause
  adverse effects
• Diagnostic x-ray procedures not generally harmful
• Fetal monitoring recommended for pregnant
  radiation workers

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How Much Radiation Is Harmful?

• Radiogenic health effects (primarily cancer) are
  observed in humans only at doses in excess of 10
  rem delivered at high dose rates. Below this
  dose, estimation of adverse health effect is
  speculative.
• Radiation Risk in Perspective
• Health Physics Society

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Balancing Risk and Benefit

• Maintain radiation exposure as low as reasonably
  achievable (ALARA)
• Employ common-sense radiation protection practices

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Radiation Protection Principles

• Personal Barrier
• Source Reduction
• Optimal technology

• Time
• Distance
• Shielding

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Time

• Dose Rate x Time Dose
• 50 mrem/hr x ½ hour 25 mrem
• Plan and set up experiments in advance
• Practice
• Work efficiently, but dont be hasty

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Distance

• The dose rate is inversely proportional to the
  square of the distance from a gamma emitter
• ? Maximize distance from source

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Shielding

• Choose appropriate shielding
• Plexiglas for high-energy beta emitters
• Lead or leaded glass for gamma emitters
• Contain isotope in vial, keep vial in shipping
  container, secure material
• Keep waste containers closed when not in use, and
  shield if necessary

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P-32 Shielding
Cr-51 Shielding
Plexiglass
Lead
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Personal Barrier

• Use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
• Lab coat
• Gloves
• Eye protection
• Closed-toe shoes
• Additional PPE as required such as face shield,
  or leaded gloves

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Source Reduction

• Minimize quantities and concentrations
• Keep work areas free from contamination
• Use fume hoods when working with volatile
  compounds

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ALARA

• ALARA As Low As Reasonably Achievable
• Quarterly Investigational Limits
• Badge Level I (mrem) Level II
  (mrem)
• Body or chest 125 375
• Collar 400 1200
• Extremities 1250 3750
• Exposure Level lt Level I - No Action
• Exposure gt Level I but lt Level II - Report to
  RCC
• Exposure gt Level II - Reported to RCC and
  employee and investigated by RSO

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Dosimetry

• Workers assigned radiation dosimetry as necessary
• Control badge issued
• Position badge for maximum radiation exposure
• Wear extremity dosimeter with label facing inside
  hand
• Additional monitoring as required
• Bioassay
• Personal air samplers

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Dosimetry

• Radiation badges can measure dose from high
  energy betas, gamma x-rays
• Radiation badges cannot measure dose from alphas
  or weak beta emitters such as 3H, 14C, and 35S

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Guidelines for Dosimetry Assignment

• Those working with
• P-32
• Cr-51
• I-125 bound to protein
• Volatile I-125 or I-131
• Other gamma-emitting materials

• Possession Limit
• gt 50 mCi
• gt 10 mCi
• gt 5 mCi
• gt 1 mCi
• Any Amount

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Dosimetry Reports

• Dosimetry reports provided monthly or quarterly
• Review and initial dosimetry reports
• Report dosimetry problems to Radiation Safety
  contact

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Year to date
Lifetime
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Optimal Technology

• Choose the most appropriate equipment
• Optimize risks, benefits, and costs
• Consider substitutions (33P instead of 32P)
• Design shielding around work instead of working
  around shielding

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Common Isotopes at Emory

• H-3
• C-14
• P-32
• P-33

• S-35
• Cr-51
• I-125
• Cs-137 (Sealed Sources)

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http//las.perkinelmer.com/content/TechnicalInfo/T
CH_Phosphorus32.pdf
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Questions / Answers
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How to Have Successful RADIATION SAFETY AUDITS

• Audits performed quarterly by Radiation Safety
• The Georgia Department of Natural Resources
  audits Emorys Radiation Safety Program

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Administrative Controls

• Occupational Dose Limits
• Dosimetry
• Radioactive Materials Authorization
• Laboratory Radiation Safety Contact
  (Record keeping)
• Isotope Purchase and Receipt

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Administrative Controls

• Inventory Maintenance
• Storage and Use Requirements
• Laboratory Surveys
• Radioactive Waste
• Spill Response

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Radioactive Materials Authorization

• Authorization approved by Radiation Control
  Council
• Specifies use
• Isotopes and limits
• Chemical forms
• Protocols
• Authorized users
• Authorized locations
• Conditions of use

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Radiation Safety Contact

• Liaison
• Responsible for documentation
• EHS Assist Maintenance
• Update binder
• Records may be purged after 3 years

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Isotope Purchase and Receipt

• Approved by and shipped to Radiation Safety
• Orders received by noon deadline can be delivered
  the next business day
• Contact Radiation Safety for questions about
  orders
• Radioactive materials transfers must be approved
  by radiation in advance.
• Fax or email the transfer form to a Health
  Physicist

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Emory Express

• Things to remember when ordering isotopes through
  Emory Express
• ? Shipping Address
• Attn Radiation Safety/(authorized users name)
• Department Radiation Safety Office
• Building/Room Whitehead Bldg, Rm G44
• 615 Michael St.
• Atlanta, GA. 30322
• ? Sub code for radioactive materials 4580

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Emory Express

• ? Internal Notes Section
• 1) R
• 2) Amount on hand
• 3) Lab delivery location
• If you need assistance with ordering isotopes
  through Emory Express, contact
• Paula Pleger 712-0103
• Shanari Carter 727-9694

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Package Receipt

• All radioactive material shipments are surveyed
  for contamination prior to delivery

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Use Logs

• Maintain for each isotope vial
• May be paper or computer-driven
• Enter date, activity, amount removed and initials
  of user
• Past logs are to be kept in notebook

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Isotope Use Sheets
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EHS Assistant

• Online Isotope Management System
• Replaces HOT2008
• Manages isotope use, waste, auto decay,
  inventory, waste pickup requests
• Contact your Health Physicist for training

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Isotope Storage

• Secure stock material
• Lock box
• Lockable freezer
• Lock lab (if applicable)
• Prevent unauthorized access

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Required Post-Use Surveys

• Survey area and self immediately after use
• Document survey in same calendar week
• Survey with GM meter, if appropriate (gamma and
  high energy beta emitters)
• Perform wipe-test/contamination survey (liquid
  scintillation or gamma counter)

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Radiation Safety Quarterly Audits

• Review RAM inventory records before Radiation
  Safety audit
• Verify survey documentation is current
• Conduct G-M and contamination surveys
• Assess other factors in the lab, e.g.
• Are staff wearing badges?
• Is appropriate PPE being worn?
• Is shielding present?

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Common Violations

• Weekly surveys not performed
• Contamination
• Food or drink in lab / cold room
• Improper shielding
• Inventory not properly maintained
• Children in laboratory
• Dosimetry reports not reviewed
• Unauthorized transfers

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Instrumentation

• Geiger Mueller Counter
• Geiger counters are used to detect radiation
• (alpha, beta, and gamma)
• Liquid Scintillation Counter
• A detector of particles and ionizing radiation
  which uses a
• photomultiplier to generate flashes of light

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Anatomy of a Geiger Counter
On/Off
Analog display
Fast/Slow
Multipliers
Reset
Batteries
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Probes

• The two most common probes are the
• Hot Dog Pancake
• Function
• Dose rate Contamination

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GM Meter Operation

• Check calibration (annual)
• Check battery
• Check response to radiation
• Use mR/hr scale if available
• Scan one detector head per second and 1 inch
  from the surface
• Clean area if greater than 2 mR/hr

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Whats the dose rate?(exercise)

• Using Sr90 Co60 what is the dose rate?
• 1 above the surface
• When surveying for contamination, move the probe
  1 or 2 detector head size per second

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Beta/Gamma Discrimination(exercise)
Determine the type of radiation by placing a
barrier between the probe and contaminated area
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Liquid Scintillation

• Samples are dissolved or suspended in solvent
• Particles emitted transfer energy to solvent
  molecules
• Molecules dissipate energy by emitting light

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Liquid Scintillation
Quantify and express the count rate in units of
radioactivity Cpm/dpm efficiency Each isotope
of interest has it own counting efficiency
Liquid Efficiencies (LSC) H-3 (.35), C-14 (.85),
P-32(.98), P-33(.85) S-35(.85), I-125(.75),
I-131(.85)
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CPM to DPM Conversion

• Determine efficiency by counting a standard
  calibrated in DPM or converted to DPM from
  microcuries
• Perform QC checks

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• Counting conditions to consider
• Quenching Lowers intensity resulting in
  reduced efficiency
• Geometry sample position, uniformity
• Cocktail Biodegradable, select best
  cocktail for samples

Optimal Conditions
Color Chemical Quench
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Contamination Surveys using a Liquid
Scintillation Counter

• Count blank wipe for instrument background
• Record results in DPM or CPM with proper
  documentation (eff)
• Cleanup required at 3x background, or gt200 dpm

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Wipe Tests
Detect the presence of removable contamination
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Wipe Tests
Standard industry practice 100 cm2
100 cm2
12 to 14
4 x 4
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gt200 dpm/100cm2
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LSC information
Data results
Efficiency
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Radioactive Waste
Waste in proper containers
Containers not overfilled
Appropriate container shielding
Complete container labels
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Waste Streams

• Segregate waste by isotope and waste stream
• Liquid (usually 80-90 of waste)
• Dry (10-20)
• Liquid Scintillation Vials (lt1 mCi)
• Use clear waste bags and no Biohazard bags
• No lead shipping containers in the waste. Turn
  them in on waste day or during a waste pickup
• Deface trifoil symbols

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Preparing waste

• Complete the radioactive waste cards prior to
  pickup or transporting to waste day
• - P.I.
• - Isotope
• - Dose rate
• - Date
• - EHSA Container

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Preparing waste

• Seal liquid waste containers with a cap
• Place liquid waste into secondary containers
  prior to transporting
• Place clear bags inside the fiber drum and
  buckets

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Waste Drop-off Locations

• Whitehead and Rollins Buildings Thursday 9 am
  - 12 noon Whitehead Room G44
• Woodruff Memorial Research Building Thursday 1
  pm - 4 pm WMB Room LL302
• Other locations usually Wednesday
  afternoon Call 727-8784 for pickup

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How to clean up a spill

• Warn others of a spill
• Wear all PPE and double glove
• Wipe from the perimeter toward the center.
• Use an all purpose cleaner (no solvents!!)
• Check for contamination with wipe test and Geiger
  counter if appropriate

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How to clean up a spill

• Repeat cleaning and contamination tests until the
  area is lt200 dpm/100 cm2
• Once the spill is cleaned survey yourself before
  exiting the area
• If you are not able to decontaminate the area
  contact radiation safety for assistance
• Call RSO for assistance if a major spill
  (404-727-5922)
• Document contamination survey

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Response to Spilled Radioactive Materials on Skin
or Personnel Clothing

• Rinse affected area with soap and running water
  (10-15 mins)
• Use lukewarm water, cold water will cause pores
  to close trapping contamination
• Hot water will cause pores to open, causing
  contamination to travel deeper into layers of the
  skin
• Pat affected area dry with a disposable towel
• Proceed with contamination monitoring

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Response to Spilled Radioactive Materials on Skin
or Personnel Clothing

• Remove contaminated clothing and place in a
  plastic bag for decay/disposal ( place the bag in
  a fume hood or separate waste bucket)

• Contact the RSO or a member of the Radiation
  Safety staff of any suspected or confirmed
  contamination of the skin or personal clothing

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Questions / Answers
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Before you leave

• ? Please complete exam
• Turn in exam with
• completed Personnel History Form and
• training evaluation
• ? Obtain a radiation badge, if needed according
  to guidelines, from the trainer

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• Thank you!
• Tell us what you think of the training
• complete an online training evaluation survey _at_
  www.ehso.emory.edu
• For questions about other Radiation Safety
  training,
• Contact Chris Vanderpool at 727-1355
• For questions about other EHSO required training,
  
• Contact Diane Kusek, EHSO Training Manager at
• 727-8437 or diane.kusek_at_emory.edu

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