Surprising' What is that mind Spirit Probably not' Maybe the extremely complex simultaneous operatio

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• Surprising. What is that mind? Spirit
  Probably not. Maybe the extremely complex
  simultaneous operation of the whole brain.
  Regardless- There are two levels of analysis to
  understand human behavior.
• --------------------------------------------------
  ------------------------------------
• Gal, Flourens, Broca, Wernicke, Fritsch HItzig,
  Leshely, Penfield
• Is there an absolute and definite answer? NO. But
  going around this question in concentric circles
  with ever improved research techniques our
  knowledge is continuously expanding.

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The importance of Metaphors in Psychology
(Soyland, 1994).

• Metaphors are Promissory notes. They enable
  communication and point the direction
• They rest on the technological progress of the
  time
• Freuds model of personality dynamics in terms of
  steam engine
• Pribram (1960s) when dealing with the question
  of localization of memories relies on the
  Hologram as a metaphor to guide theory
• The hologram now provides an explicit modelthe
  hypothesis is that information is stored like in
  a hologram and is thus resistant to injury
• Cognitive theories use the metaphor of parallel
  processing
• Leshley No localization Knowledge is arranged
  in circles. It is like throwing a stone into
  water. There are circles (less clear) far from
  where the stone hit the water.

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Into the Science of Psychology

• The 4 gates into modern psychological science
• Physiological processes (the problem of
  localization)
• From Psychophysics to Experimental Psychology
  Structuralism (the problem of perception and
  cognition)
• Coping and adjustment Functionalism
• Psychoanalysis (the problem of levels of
  consciousness, and adjusted/maladjusted
  personality).

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From Psychophysics to Experimental Psychology A
prelude to structuralism

• Translating Physical Energy to a Psychological
  sensation
• Johannes Muller (1801-1858)
• Specifity of neural transmission
• (William James If you attach the auditory nerve
  to the visual cortex and the visual nerve to the
  auditory cortex we would have seen the thunder
  and heard the lightning)
• But although an important physiologist he is
  also a German romanticist the force of Vitalism
  in nature. Physiological processes are tied
  together by the force of Vitalism

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• Hermann Helmholtz (1821-1894)
• As a child in Germany received a scholarship to
  continue his studies in Physics.
• The importance of the university in Germany
• The advanced nature of giving a scholarship to a
  gifted child who comes from the middle classes
• After finishing medical studies learned with
  Muller, heard the ideas about Vitalism, but went
  the opposite direction
• Everything needs to be explained by
  bio-chemical/physical forces (mechanistic
  approach)
• The oath of DuBois Raymond
• No other forces than the common physical ones are
  acting within the organism
• In 1847 published a paper on the conservation of
  energy. Was discharged from the army

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• Contributions
• The speed of neural transmission is measurable
  and finite and not mysterious and infinite (like
  Vitalists would claim)
• 30 meters per second Frogs leg. How
  determined? Empirically
• The translations of sensations into perceptions
  occurs in the cortex. It is done according to
  laws which are not inborn (Kant, Leinbitz, etc.,)
  but learned. We learn the law of closure from
  endless repeated encounters and not because our
  brain is so wired.
• This contrasts the conception of a law of
  perception in the Gestalt sense with the concept
  of learned mental set.
• Performed the experiment with people wearing
  glasses that tilt the world 10 degrees to the
  right. When returning to normal environment Had
  to relearn.
• Color Perception Any color we can think of can
  be attained by mixing Red, Green and Deep Blue.
  But we dont view these different colors, but
  experience the resultant color. How? There must
  be cells in the retina that are sensitive to
  different wave lengths and when they fire at
  once we get the feeling of a specific color.
• Turns out to be true the Young-Helmholtz theory
  of color perceptions.

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Psychophysics

• Ernst Weber (1795-1878) The concept of JND (Just
  Noticeable Difference). The concept of Threshold.
  
• Determined by asking people to weigh small
  weights and say when they are different or equal.
  
• The physical energy is translated into
  psychological sensation in a known and constant
  ratio.
• Sophisticated research and thinking. As an
  example Difference when I tell you lift the
  weights and place them on both hands from I lay
  the weights on your hands. In the second case
  less sensitive (e.g., 140 vs. 240). Why? In the
  first case we get feedback from more muscle
  groups.
• Fechner (1801-1887). Translated this principle of
  JND into a mathematical formula. A believer in
  the cosmic soul.

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The Father of Scientific Psychology Wilhelm
Wundt (1832-1920).

• 1879- Leipzig 2 rooms, 15 years later- A 4 story
  building.
• All his life was fearful that hell be
  misunderstood. This is indeed what happened.
  Titchener (his student) who translated his
  writings to English was a religious
  structuralist and this is reflected in the
  tranlation.
• Life Born to a priest, was fairly weak student
  (daydreaming), went to medical school, decided
  that he wanted to work in research. Worked with
  Helmholtz.
• Unbelievably fertile 60,000 pp. of scientific
  writing.
• 1867 The Principles of Physiological
  Psychology (2nd edition 1880 3rd edition 1887)
• The meaning of Physiological (i.e.,
  experimental)
• Very well organized. Fits the stereotype of the
  German Professor, yet pleasant and non-assuming
  individual with a very organized daily routine
• he was not himself a laboratory worker (Cattel,
  1928)

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• Involved in Politics and social affairs. Not a
  recluse.
• In 1879 in Leipzig the first laboratory. Took
  much time to convince the community that until
  then saw Psychology as part of philosophy.
• The incident with Zolner (wrote an article
  against Henry Slade) did not help much.
• His study of Conscious Experience
• Although he was interested in the Zeitgiest of
  the day (i.e., reductionism- identifying the
  basic elements of the mind) his emphasis was
  not as static as that of TItchner. He was
  interested in the process in which the mind
  organizes these elements into higher level
  processes. He referred to this as Voluntarism
  (the persons volition- will- is critical to
  understand this organizational processes).
• According to him psychologists should focus on
  the study of immediate experiences, rather than
  mediate experiences. (e.g., the flower is red
  study redness I have a headache study
  discomort/ache).

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• Introspection His use of introspection was
  experimental in the following sense- 4 rules
• Observers need to say when the process is to be
  introduced
• They must be in strained attention
• It must be possible to replicate the observation
• One must be able to vary the stimuli (i.e.,
  Experimental principle)
• In most cases such introspection was confined to
  simple tasks (e.g., judgments of weight, size,
  intensity, etc., ) Yet also more qualitative
  introspections (e.g., pleasantness of a
  stimulus).
• Elements of Conscious Experience By
  introspection on metronome clicks he found that
  different pace/level of sound produced different
  levels of
• Agreeable-disagreeable
• Tense-Calm
• Excitement-Depression
• Suggested that any human emotion can placed on
  these 3 continuums

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• Apperception We do not view the parts of a
  tree, but the tree. The organizing process is
  such that every psychic compound has
  characteristics which are by no means the mere
  sum of the characteristics of the elements
  (1896). Preceded Gestalt by 20-30 years.
• Apperception is the process of creative synthesis
  that creates psychological entities which are
  different that its parts (also in chemistry the
  compound has additional qualities to that of its
  elements).
• In the early 1900s published 10 volumes on
  Volkpsychologie (language, culture, myths)
• Called for 2 psychologies The experimental would
  address simple processes the more complex
  processes would be studied non-experimentally.
• Checking the citations to his work (in the
  1990s) Only 5 address Volkpsychologie

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• A few comments on WUndtian psychology
• WUndts importance is in the genius and
  dedication that was at the background of creating
  an experimental psychology.
• In Germany it did not catch on because
• Psychology was seen as part of Philosophy until
  1941
• It was challenged by 2 other developments in the
  German speaking world Gestalt and
  Psychoanalysis.
• The 1st world war and the economic ruin that
  followed did not allow the necessary investments
  to maintain and develop experimental pscyhology

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• In the English speaking world it did not fare
  well because
• The accusations that Wundt made some comments
  blaming England for the outbreak of WW I, and
  claiming that Germanys invasion of Belgium was
  self-defense
• Wundtian psychology has no concern with real
  world contributions. Something that was not
  consistent with the American Zeitgeist of the day
  (especially around WW I and the Economic
  difficulties that followed).
• BUT Much of the developments in 20th scientific
  psychology are nourished by the methods and
  experimental philosophy of Wundtian psychology,
  and represents a rebellion against some
  limitations that Wundtian psychology placed on
  the field. Thus Much of the development is due
  to the arguments with Wundtian concepts and
  suggestions.